Compositions and methods for enzyme immobilization

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure relates to compositions of immobilized enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells and uses thereof. In particular, the present disclosure provides genetically engineered minicells with enzymes self-assembled on their surface. The immobilized enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate minicells, has agricultural, industrial, and environmental applications due to their improved stability durability and, reusability. Also, provided are methods for producing and purifying enzyme-immobilized minicells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.16/606,595, filed Oct. 18, 2019, which is a U.S. National Phaseapplication of International Application No. PCT/US2018/030328, filedApr. 30, 2018, which claims the benefit of priority to U.S. provisionalapplication No. 62/491,603 filed on Apr. 28, 2017, which is herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety.

FIELD

The present disclosure is generally directed to compositions and methodsfor immobilizing enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleatecells. The immobilized enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/oranucleate cells, described herein provide improved stability andefficiency for agricultural, industrial, and environmental applications.Also, disclosed herein are methods for producing achromosomal and/oranucleate cells with enzymes immobilized.

STATEMENT REGARDING SEQUENCE LISTING

The contents of the electronic sequence listing(AGRO_001_02US_SeqList_ST26.xml; Size: 130,857 bytes; and Date ofCreation: Mar. 31, 2023) are herein incorporated by reference in itsentirety.

BACKGROUND

Due to the evolution of modern biotechnology, the enzyme industry hasbeen rapidly developed over the past decades. Enzymes found in naturehave been used since ancient times in the production of food products,such as cheese, sourdough, beer, wine and vinegar, and in themanufacture of commodities such as leather, indigo and linen. In theseprocesses enzymes were not used in any pure or well-characterized form,but for example, enzymes produced by spontaneously growingmicroorganisms. Along with the development of fermentation processes,the production of enzymes by use of selected production strains, made itpossible to manufacture enzymes as purified, well-characterizedpreparations even on a large scale.

Despite their excellent catalytic capabilities and properties ofenzymes, enzymes prior to implementation have issues to be improved,such as stability, activity, inhibition by reaction products,selectivity towards non-natural substrates and reusability. Currently,many immobilization techniques to immobilize enzymes on a solidmaterial, such as a porous support aim to simplify the recovery process,enhances process control, and reduces operational costs. However, theseimmobilization processes are associated with toxic reagents and/orchemical reactions to ensure stability of the enzymes on a solidmaterial.

Thus, there is a great need in the art for the technical development ofenzyme immobilization on enzyme-friendly supports, which make productionof industrial enzymes in more environment-friendly, process-efficient,and cost-efficient manners. Also, there is a need for the production ofenzyme-immobilized minicells such as described herein which are easilyrecoverable, recyclable, durable, and stable with extended active lifecycle of enzyme to increase the usage of immobilized enzymes inindustry.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure provides compositions and methods forimmobilizing enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleatecells. In particular, the present disclosure provides compositions andmethods for production of minicells having immobilized enzymes on theirsurface and uses thereof.

The present disclosure is directed to an industrially suitableanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform and acomposition thereof. Also, disclosed herein a method of producing anindustrially suitable anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform and applications thereof.

In some embodiments, an industrially suitable anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform, is provided, whichcomprising: a) an intact anucleated cell derived from a proteasedeficient parental cell, wherein said anucleated cell comprising anexpressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface of said cell.In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous tothe parental cell. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzymeis at least one selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase,isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase,pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase,lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase,urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase,acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvatedehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase,and laccase. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme islipase. In embodiments, glucose isomerase. In embodiments, said intactanucleated cell is derived from a prokaryotic cell. In embodiments, saidintact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell. Inembodiments, said intact anucleated cell is produced from a gramnegative bacterial genus. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell isproduced from a bacterial genus selected from the group consisting of:Escherichia, Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, and Agrobacterium. Inembodiments, said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterialspecies selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia coli,Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is produced from a grampositive bacterial genus. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell isproduced from a bacterial genus selected from the group consisting of:Bacillus, Corynebacterium, and Lactobacillus. In embodiments, saidintact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial species selectedfrom the group consisting of: Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacteriumglutamicum, and Lactobacillus acidophilus. In embodiments, intactanucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced froma parental bacterial cell deficient in WprA protease. In embodiments,said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that isproduced from a protease deficient B. subtilis parental bacterial cell.In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derivedminicell that is produced from a protease deficient KO7 B. subtilisparental bacterial cell. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell isa bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a proteasedeficient B. subtilis parental bacterial cell selected from the groupconsisting of: (1) CU403,DIVIVA; (2) CU403,DIVIVB,SPO−; (3)CU403,DIVIVB; and (4) CU403,DIVIVB1, wherein at least one proteaseencoding gene has been repressed, deleted, or silenced. In embodiments,said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that isproduced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in Lon and OmpTproteases. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is a bacteriallyderived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient E. coliparental bacterial cell. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell isa bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a proteasedeficient E. coli parental bacterial cell selected from the groupconsisting of: BL21, BL21(DE3), BL21-AI, LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) and B8.In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is derived from a eukaryoticcell.

In some embodiments, an industrially suitable anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform, is provided, whichcomprising: a) an intact anucleated cell derived from a proteasedeficient parental cell, wherein said anucleated cell comprising anexpressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface of said cell.In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein.In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein,comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least oneenzymatically active moiety. In embodiments, the expressedself-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising at least onesurface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety,wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a transmembrane domainand is selected from the group consisting of: an ice nucleation protein(INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA(Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence). In embodiments, the expressedself-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising at least onesurface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety,wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported bacterialprotein and is selected from the group consisting of LamB (lambdareceptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein F), OmpA (outermembrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein),PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13 majorcoat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor coat (Gene III).

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a second polypeptideon its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. Inembodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous polypeptide onits surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments,the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, inaddition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments, the anucleatedcell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to theself-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least onesurface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety.In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on itssurface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion proteincomprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least oneplant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said surface expressing moietycomprises a transmembrane domain and is selected from the groupconsisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA (Bordetellaserum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA (Adhesin Involved in DiffuseAdherence).

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein onits surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusionprotein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at leastone plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said surface expressing moietycomprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the groupconsisting of: LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outermembrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein),MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 orM13 minor coat (Gene III). In embodiments, the anucleated cell expressesa fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembledenzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressingmoiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said plantcell adhesion moiety comprises a carbohydrate binding module. Inembodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on itssurface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion proteincomprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least oneplant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said plant cell adhesion moietycomprises a carbohydrate binding module selected from the groupconsisting of: a cellulose binding domain, a xylan binding domain, achitin binding domain, and a lignin binding domain. In embodiments, theanucleated cell expresses a polypeptide on its surface that increasesadhesion to a plant surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a plant adhesionpolypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. Inembodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a carbohydrate binding modulethat is displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembledenzyme. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a heterologouscarbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface, inaddition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments, the anucleatedcell expresses a cellulose binding domain that is displayed on itssurface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme In embodiments, theanucleated cell expresses a heterologous cellulose binding domain thatis displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell is used as a resin forimmobilizing a polypeptide, wherein the anucleated cell expressesendogenous surface expressing moiety that have a binding domain, andwherein the binding domain is capable of binding to the polypeptide thathas a binding site. the anucleated cell is used for purifying apolypeptide, wherein the polypeptide is immobilized to the anucleatedcell by incubation.

In some embodiments, a method of improving activity and stability of ananucleated cell-based enzyme, is provided, which comprises: applying theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform to asubstrate, wherein the anucleated cell is derived from a proteasedeficient parental cell, and wherein the anucleated cell comprises anexpressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface of said cell.In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous tothe parental cell. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzymeis at least one selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase,isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase,pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase,lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase,urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase,acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvatedehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase,and laccase. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme islipase. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase,wherein the substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity.In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, whereinthe substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity, andwherein said enzymatic activity is associated with fatty acid and oilystain removal, biodiesel production via transesterification, doughstability and conditioning in baking, pitch control and contaminantcontrol for production of pulp and paper, and resolution of chiralalcohols and amines. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzymeis glucose isomerase. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembledenzyme is glucose isomerase, wherein the substrate is reacted with theglucose isomerase for enzymatic activity. In embodiments, the expressedself-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase, wherein the substrate isreacted with the glucose isomerase for enzymatic activity, and whereinsaid enzymatic activity is associated with glucose to fructoseconversion for production of high-fructose corn syrup.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell comprises at least twoexpressed self-assembled enzymes immobilized to the surface of saidcell. In embodiments, each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is afusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and atleast one enzymatically active moiety. In embodiments, each of theexpressed self-assembled enzymes is heterologous to the parental cell.In embodiments, each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusionprotein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at leastone enzymatically active moiety, wherein said enzymatically activemoiety is selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase,isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase,pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase,lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase,urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase,acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvatedehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase,and laccase. In embodiments, one of the expressed self-assembled enzymesis lipase. In embodiments, one of the expressed self-assembled enzymesis glucose isomerase. In embodiments, one of the expressedself-assembled enzymes is protease. In embodiments, each of theexpressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising atleast one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymaticallyactive moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises atransmembrane domain and is selected from the group consisting of: anice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killingprotein), and AIDA (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence). Inembodiments, each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusionprotein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at leastone enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moietycomprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the groupconsisting of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membraneprotein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE(Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 orM13 minor coat (Gene III). In embodiments, the at least two expressedself-assembled enzymes are co-localized to a desired locus, wherein eachof the expressed self-assembled enzymes have its enzymatic activity atthe desired locus. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzymesare lipase and protease. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembledenzymes are glucose isomerase and protease. In embodiments, the at leasttwo expressed self-assembled enzymes have a complimentary function. Inembodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes actsynergistically. In embodiments, the at least two expressedself-assembled enzymes each work to carry out a portion of an overallenzymatic reaction.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary bacterial minicell-inducing vector for aminC knockout to produce protease-deficient minicells. The pUC57 vectorwas inserted with a recombinant DNA insert comprising 5′ end nucleotidesequence of minC gene, a chloramphenicol resistant gene (CmR) with catpromoter, and 3′ end nucleotide sequence of minC gene. The hairpin loopsflanked by 5′ and 3′ ends of minC gene are inserted into the insert tostop transcriptional regulation of other neighboring genes in the genomewhere the insert is integrated.

FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary bacterial minicell-inducing vector for aminD knockout to produce protease-deficient minicells. The pUC57 vectorwas inserted with a recombinant DNA insert comprising 5′ end nucleotidesequence of minD gene, a chloramphenicol resistant gene (CmR) with catpromoter, and 3′ end nucleotide sequence of minD gene. The hairpin loopsflanked by 5′ and 3′ ends of minD gene are inserted into the insert tostop transcriptional regulation of other neighboring genes in the genomewhere the insert is integrated.

FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary bacterial minicell-inducing vector for aminC/minD knockout to produce protease-deficient minicells. The pUC57vector was inserted with a recombinant DNA insert comprising 5′ endnucleotide sequence of minD gene, a chloramphenicol resistant gene (CmR)with cat promoter, and 3′ end nucleotide sequence of minC gene. Thehairpin loops, flanked by 5′ end of minD gene and 3′ ends of minC gene,are inserted into the insert to stop transcriptional regulation of otherneighboring genes in the genome where the insert is integrated.

FIG. 4A illustrates an exemplary pAIDA-1-Lipase vector with an AIDA-1surface expression system for display of a lipase protein flanked by6×His, GFP nanobody and Myc tags on the surface of minicells. FIG. 4Billustrates an exemplary pAIDA-1 lipase surface expression cassette,comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AIDA-1 Autotransporter signalpeptide, GFP nanobody, lipase, and AIDA-1 autotransporter translocationdomain with tags including 6×His Tag and Myc Tag as well as two proteasecleavage sites including HRV3C and TEV.

FIG. 5A illustrates an exemplary pGEX-6P-1 AIDA-1-Lipase vector withAIDA-1 surface expression system for display of a lipase protein flankedby 6×His, GFP nanobody and Myc tags on the surface of minicells. FIG. 5Billustrates an exemplary AIDA-1 lipase surface expression cassette,comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AIDA-1 Autotransporter signalpeptide, GFP nanobody, lipase, and AIDA-1 autotransporter translocationdomain with tags including 6×His Tag and Myc Tag as well as two proteasecleavage sites including HRV3C and TEV.

FIG. 6A illustrates an exemplary pGEX-6P-1 Brk-Lipase vector with aserum resistance autotransporter Brk surface expression system fordisplay of a lipase protein flanked by 6×His, GFP nanobody and Myc tagson the surface of minicells. FIG. 6B illustrates an exemplary Brk-lipasesurface expression cassette, comprising nucleotide sequences encodingBrk Autotransporter signal peptide, GFP nanobody, lipase, and Brkautotransporter translocation domain with tags including 6×His Tag andMyc Tag as well as two protease cleavage sites including HRV3C and TEV.

FIG. 7A illustrates an exemplary pGEX-6P-1 Inak-Lipase vector with anIce Nucleation Protein InaK surface expression system for display of alipase protein on the surface of minicells. The lipase-encodingnucleotide sequence is ligated at its 5′ end to Inak and at its 3′ endto 6×His, GFP nanobody and Myc tags. FIG. 7B illustrates an exemplaryInak-lipase surface expression cassette, comprising nucleotide sequencesencoding Inak translocation domain, lipase, and GFP nanobody, with tagsincluding 6×His Tag and Myc Tag as well as two protease cleavage sitesincluding HRV3C and TEV.

FIG. 8A illustrates an exemplary pET-9a vector for expression of aprotein of interest in the protease-deficient strain with T7 RNApolymerase. FIG. 8B illustrates an exemplary pGEX-6P-1 vector forexpression of a protein of interest in the protease-deficient strainwithout T7 RNA polymerase.

FIG. 9A shows His-Tag staining of the expressed lipase protein fusedwith Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence 1 protein (AIDA-1) on thesurface of non-permeabilized minicells. The fusion AIDA-1 lipases wereexpressed on the surface of the transformed minicells (FIG. 9A),compared to control minicells that did not have the recombinant fusionlipase expression vector (FIG. 9C). FIG. 9B also shows His-Tag stainingof the expressed lipase protein fused with Bordetella serum-resistancekilling protein (BRK) on the surface of non-permeabilizedprotease-deficient minicells. The fusion Brk-lipases were expressed onthe surface of the transformed minicells (FIG. 9B), compared to controlminicells that did not have the recombinant fusion lipase expressionvector (FIG. 9D).

FIGS. 9C and 9D show no or little lipase expression fromnon-permeabilized control minicells. Arrow points out the expressedlipases.

FIG. 10A-D shows His-Tag staining results of lipase protein fused withIce Nucleation Activation K (InaK) linker protein on the surface ofminicells. The minicells were either non-permeabilized (FIGS. 10A and10C) or permeabilized (FIGS. 10B and 10D). The fusion lipases wereexpressed on the surface of the transformed minicells (FIGS. 10A and10B), compared to control minicells that did not have the recombinantAIDA-1 lipase expression vector (FIGS. 10C and 10D). FIG. 10A showsHis-Tag staining of lipases expressed from non-permeabilizedprotease-deficient minicells. FIG. 10B shows His-Tag staining of lipasesexpressed from permeabilized protease-deficient minicells. FIG. 10Cshows no or little lipase expression from non-permeabilized controlminicells. FIG. 10D also shows no or little lipase expression frompermeabilized control minicells. Arrow points out the expressed lipases.

FIG. 11A-C shows lipase activity results of the purified lipase proteinfused with three surface expression mechanisms, including AIDA-1, BRK,and InaK, respectively. The lipase was purified from the minicells andtested for its activity using lipase probe 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate. FIG.11A shows activity of lipase purified from protease-deficient minicellsexpressing the recombinant AIDA-1 lipase fusion expression vector. FIG.11B shows activity of lipase purified from protease-deficient minicellsexpressing the recombinant Brk-lipase fusion expression vector. FIG. 11Cshows that activity of lipase purified from protease-deficient minicellsexpressing the recombinant InaK-lipase fusion expression vector.(Protease Deficient control: protease-deficient B8 strain without fusionlipase, Wild Strain Control: wild type p678-54 strain without fusionlipase, Fusion Protein Control: his-tag purified CBM protein withoutlipase activity)

FIG. 12A-C shows lipase activity results of the fusion lipase proteinson the surface of minicells. Kinetic analysis of the reaction wasanalyzed by continuous spectrophotometric rate determination at 400 nm.FIG. 12A shows activity of surface-expressed lipase that is fused toAIDA-1. FIG. 12B shows activity of surface-expressed lipase that isfused to BRK. FIG. 12C shows activity of surface-expressed lipase thatis fused to InaK.

FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary pDG1728 vector with a Sortaseautotransporter for enzyme immobilization in gram positive bacteriacells. Sortase expression is induced with D(+) xylose.

FIG. 14 illustrates an exemplary pUC57 vector for expressing a proteinof interest including proteases such as a protease subtilisin on thesurface of minicells by inserting surface expression mechanismsincluding but not limited to AIDA-1, BRK, and InaK into this vector.

FIG. 15 illustrates an exemplary pUC57 vector for expressing an amylaseA on the surface of minicells by inserting surface expression mechanismsincluding but not limited to AIDA-1, BRK, and InaK into this vector.

FIG. 16 illustrates delivery of self-immobilized enzymes on a minicellthat can be simply purified. The enzyme-immobilized minicell is anachromosomal and/or anucleate cell that is not contaminated and/ordisrupted by DNA.

FIG. 17A-B shows scanning electron micrograph images of minicellformation in E. coli (FIG. 17A) and of protease-deficient minicells inwhich minC gene is knocked out and/or removed (FIG. 17B). The size ofexemplary minicells is less than one micrometer as shown in FIG. 17B.

FIG. 18 illustrates an exemplary pUC18 vector for a protease WprAknockout to produce protease-deficient minicells from bacterial strainswith WprA protease. The pUC18 vector was inserted with a recombinant DNAinsert comprising 5′ end nucleotide sequence of WprA gene, achloramphenicol resistant gene (CmR) with cat promoter, and 3′ endnucleotide sequence of WprA gene. The hairpin loops flanked by 5′ and 3′ends of wprA gene are inserted into the insert to stop transcriptionalregulation of other neighboring genes in the genome where the insert isintegrated.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure relates generally to compositions and methods forimmobilizing enzymes of interest on the surface of achromosomal and/oranucleate cells. In particular, the present disclosure providescompositions and methods for production of minicells having immobilizedenzymatically active polypeptides on their surface and uses thereof.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides compositions andmethods for immobilizing enzymatically active polypeptides including,but are not limited to, lipases, phospholipases, transacylases,transaminases, pectinase, proteases, amylases, cellulases, cutinases,esterases, acylases, invertases, isomerases, lyases, glucosidases,oxidoreductases, transferases, ligases, and amidases, displayed on thesurface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells. In other embodiments,enzymatically active polypeptides comprise lipase, glucose isomerase,alpha amylase, cellulase (endoglucanases, exoglucanases,beta-glucosidases), beta amylase, pectin lyase, isomerase, protease,transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase,alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenases (e.g. alcoholdehydrogenases, lactate dehydrogenases, acetaldehyde dehydrogenases,aldehyde dehydrogenases, pyruvate dehydrogenases, and succinatedehydrogenases), xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase. Also,enzymatically active polypeptides further comprise amyloglucosidase,pullulanase, cyclodextrin-glycosyltransferase, pectin methyl esterase,glucose oxidase, lactase, beta-glucanase, acetolactate decarboxylase,pectate lyase, nitrilase, and amyloglucosidase. In some embodiments, theenzymatically active polypeptide is lipase. In some embodiments, theenzymatically active polypeptide is glucose isomerase.

In some embodiments, the achromosomal and/or anucleate cells are derivedfrom eubacterial, archaebacterial, and/or eukaryotic cell. In otherembodiments, minicells having immobilized enzymes on their surface canhave applications for agriculture, animal feed, food, beverages,industrial enzymes, textiles, pulp and paper, biofuels, fermentation,bioremediation, bioenergy, electronics, defense, bioenergy, householdcare, pharmaceuticals, and others uses.

Definitions

While the following terms are believed to be well understood by one ofordinary skill in the art, the following definitions are set forth tofacilitate explanation of the presently disclosed subject matter.

The term “a” or “an” refers to one or more of that entity, i.e. canrefer to a plural referents. As such, the terms “a” or “an”, “one ormore” and “at least one” are used interchangeably herein. In addition,reference to “an element” by the indefinite article “a” or “an” does notexclude the possibility that more than one of the elements is present,unless the context clearly requires that there is one and only one ofthe elements.

As used herein the terms “cellular organism” “microorganism” or“microbe” should be taken broadly. These terms are used interchangeablyand include, but are not limited to, the two prokaryotic domains,Bacteria and Archaea, as well as certain eukaryotic fungi and protists.

The term “prokaryotes” is art recognized and refers to cells whichcontain no nucleus or other cell organelles. The prokaryotes aregenerally classified in one of two domains, the Bacteria and theArchaea. The definitive difference between organisms of the Archaea andBacteria domains is based on fundamental differences in the nucleotidebase sequence in the 16S ribosomal RNA.

The term “Archaea” refers to a categorization of organisms of thedivision Mendosicutes, typically found in unusual environments anddistinguished from the rest of the prokaryotes by several criteria,including the number of ribosomal proteins and the lack of muramic acidin cell walls. On the basis of ssrRNA analysis, the Archaea consist oftwo phylogenetically-distinct groups: Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota.On the basis of their physiology, the Archaea can be organized intothree types: methanogens (prokaryotes that produce methane); extremehalophiles (prokaryotes that live at very high concentrations of salt(NaCl); and extreme (hyper) Thermophilus (prokaryotes that live at veryhigh temperatures). Besides the unifying archaeal features thatdistinguish them from Bacteria (i.e., no murein in cell wall,ester-linked membrane lipids, etc.), these prokaryotes exhibit uniquestructural or biochemical attributes which adapt them to theirparticular habitats. The Crenarchaeota consists mainly ofhyperthermophilic sulfur-dependent prokaryotes and the Euryarchaeotacontains the methanogens and extreme halophiles.

“Bacteria” or “eubacteria” refers to a domain of prokaryotic organisms.Bacteria include at least 11 distinct groups as follows: (1)Gram-positive (gram+) bacteria, of which there are two majorsubdivisions: (1) high G+C group (Actinomycetes, Mycobacteria,Micrococcus, others) (2) low G+C group (Bacillus, Clostridia,Lactobacillus, Staphylococci, Streptococci, Mycoplasmas); (2)Proteobacteria, e.g., Purple photosynthetic+non-photosyntheticGram-negative bacteria (includes most “common” Gram-negative bacteria);(3) Cyanobacteria, e.g., oxygenic phototrophs; (4) Spirochetes andrelated species; (5) Planctomyces; (6) Bacteroides, Flavobacteria; (7)Chlamydia; (8) Green sulfur bacteria; (9) Green non-sulfur bacteria(also anaerobic phototrophs); (10) Radioresistant micrococci andrelatives; (11) Thermotoga and Thermosipho thermophiles.

A “eukaryote” is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and otherorganelles enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes belong to the taxonEukarya or Eukaryota. The defining feature that sets eukaryotic cellsapart from prokaryotic cells (the aforementioned Bacteria and Archaea)is that they have membrane-bound organelles, especially the nucleus,which contains the genetic material, and is enclosed by the nuclearenvelope.

The terms “genetically modified host cell,” “recombinant host cell,” and“recombinant strain” are used interchangeably herein and refer to hostcells that have been genetically modified by the cloning andtransformation methods of the present disclosure. Thus, the termsinclude a host cell (e.g., bacteria, yeast cell, fungal cell, CHO, humancell, etc.) that has been genetically altered, modified, or engineered,such that it exhibits an altered, modified, or different genotype and/orphenotype (e.g., when the genetic modification affects coding nucleicacid sequences of the microorganism), as compared to thenaturally-occurring organism from which it was derived. It is understoodthat in some embodiments, the terms refer not only to the particularrecombinant host cell in question, but also to the progeny or potentialprogeny of such a host cell.

The term “wild-type microorganism” or “wild-type host cell” describes acell that occurs in nature, i.e. a cell that has not been geneticallymodified. In the disclosure, “wild type strain” or “wild strain” or“wild type cell line” refers to a cell strain/line that can produceminicells. In some embodiments, wild type bacterial strains and/or celllines such as E. coli strain p678-54 and B. subtilis strain CU403 canmake miniature cells deficient in DNA. Methods for producing suchminicells are known in the art. See, for example, Adler et al., 1967,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 57:321-326; Inselburg J, 1970 J. Bacteriol.102(3):642-647; Frazer 1975, Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 69:1-84,Reeve et al 1973, J. Bacteriol. 114(2):860-873; and Mendelson et al 1974J. Bacteriol. 117(3):1312-1319.

The term “genetically engineered” may refer to any manipulation of ahost cell's genome (e.g. by insertion, deletion, mutation, orreplacement of nucleic acids).

The term “control” or “control host cell” refers to an appropriatecomparator host cell for determining the effect of a geneticmodification or experimental treatment. In some embodiments, the controlhost cell is a wild type cell. In other embodiments, a control host cellis genetically identical to the genetically modified host cell, save forthe genetic modification(s) differentiating the treatment host cell.

As used herein, the term “allele(s)” means any of one or morealternative forms of a gene, all of which alleles relate to at least onetrait or characteristic. In a diploid cell, the two alleles of a givengene occupy corresponding loci on a pair of homologous chromosomes.

As used herein, the term “locus” (loci plural) means a specific place orplaces or a site on a chromosome where for example a gene or geneticmarker is found.

As used herein, the term “genetically linked” refers to two or moretraits that are co-inherited at a high rate during breeding such thatthey are difficult to separate through crossing.

A “recombination” or “recombination event” as used herein refers to achromosomal crossing over or independent assortment.

As used herein, the term “phenotype” refers to the observablecharacteristics of an individual cell, cell culture, organism, or groupof organisms which results from the interaction between thatindividual's genetic makeup (i.e., genotype) and the environment.

As used herein, the term “chimeric” or “recombinant” when describing anucleic acid sequence or a protein sequence refers to a nucleic acid, ora protein sequence, that links at least two heterologouspolynucleotides, or two heterologous polypeptides, into a singlemacromolecule, or that rearranges one or more elements of at least onenatural nucleic acid or protein sequence. For example, the term“recombinant” can refer to an artificial combination of two otherwiseseparated segments of sequence, e.g., by chemical synthesis or by themanipulation of isolated segments of nucleic acids by geneticengineering techniques.

As used herein, a “synthetic nucleotide sequence” or “syntheticpolynucleotide sequence” is a nucleotide sequence that is not known tooccur in nature or that is not naturally occurring. Generally, such asynthetic nucleotide sequence will comprise at least one nucleotidedifference when compared to any other naturally occurring nucleotidesequence.

As used herein, a “synthetic amino acid sequence” or “synthetic peptide”or “synthetic protein” is an amino acid sequence that is not known tooccur in nature or that is not naturally occurring. Generally, such asynthetic protein sequence will comprise at least one amino aciddifference when compared to any other naturally occurring proteinsequence.

As used herein, the term “nucleic acid” refers to a polymeric form ofnucleotides of any length, either ribonucleotides ordeoxyribonucleotides, or analogs thereof. This term refers to theprimary structure of the molecule, and thus includes double- andsingle-stranded DNA, as well as double- and single-stranded RNA. It alsoincludes modified nucleic acids such as methylated and/or capped nucleicacids, nucleic acids containing modified bases, backbone modifications,and the like. The terms “nucleic acid” and “nucleotide sequence” areused interchangeably.

As used herein, the term “gene” refers to any segment of DNA associatedwith a biological function. Thus, genes include, but are not limited to,coding sequences and/or the regulatory sequences required for theirexpression. Genes can also include non-expressed DNA segments that, forexample, form recognition sequences for other proteins. Genes can beobtained from a variety of sources, including cloning from a source ofinterest or synthesizing from known or predicted sequence information,and may include sequences designed to have desired parameters.

As used herein, the term “homologous” or “homologue” or “ortholog” isknown in the art and refers to related sequences that share a commonancestor or family member and are determined based on the degree ofsequence identity. The terms “homology,” “homologous,” “substantiallysimilar” and “corresponding substantially” are used interchangeablyherein. They refer to nucleic acid fragments wherein changes in one ormore nucleotide bases do not affect the ability of the nucleic acidfragment to mediate gene expression or produce a certain phenotype.These terms also refer to modifications of the nucleic acid fragments ofthe instant disclosure such as deletion or insertion of one or morenucleotides that do not substantially alter the functional properties ofthe resulting nucleic acid fragment relative to the initial, unmodifiedfragment. It is therefore understood, as those skilled in the art willappreciate, that the disclosure encompasses more than the specificexemplary sequences. These terms describe the relationship between agene found in one species, subspecies, variety, cultivar or strain andthe corresponding or equivalent gene in another species, subspecies,variety, cultivar or strain. For purposes of this disclosure homologoussequences are compared. “Homologous sequences” or “homologues” or“orthologs” are thought, believed, or known to be functionally related.A functional relationship may be indicated in any one of a number ofways, including, but not limited to: (a) degree of sequence identityand/or (b) the same or similar biological function. Preferably, both (a)and (b) are indicated. Homology can be determined using softwareprograms readily available in the art, such as those discussed inCurrent Protocols in Molecular Biology (F. M. Ausubel et al., eds.,1987) Supplement 30, section 7.718, Table 7.71. Some alignment programsare MacVector (Oxford Molecular Ltd, Oxford, U.K.), ALIGN Plus(Scientific and Educational Software, Pennsylvania) and AlignX (VectorNTI, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Another alignment program isSequencher (Gene Codes, Ann Arbor, Mich.), using default parameters.

As used herein, the term “endogenous” or “endogenous gene,” refers tothe naturally occurring gene, in the location in which it is naturallyfound within the host cell genome. In the context of the presentdisclosure, operably linking a heterologous promoter to an endogenousgene means genetically inserting a heterologous promoter sequence infront of an existing gene, in the location where that gene is naturallypresent. An endogenous gene as described herein can include alleles ofnaturally occurring genes that have been mutated according to any of themethods of the present disclosure.

As used herein, the term “exogenous” is used interchangeably with theterm “heterologous,” and refers to a substance coming from some sourceother than its native source. For example, the terms “exogenousprotein,” or “exogenous gene” refer to a protein or gene from anon-native source or location, and that have been artificially suppliedto a biological system.

As used herein, the term “nucleotide change” refers to, e.g., nucleotidesubstitution, deletion, and/or insertion, as is well understood in theart. For example, mutations contain alterations that produce silentsubstitutions, additions, or deletions, but do not alter the propertiesor activities of the encoded protein or how the proteins are made.

As used herein, the term “protein modification” refers to, e.g., aminoacid substitution, amino acid modification, deletion, and/or insertion,as is well understood in the art.

As used herein, the term “at least a portion” or “fragment” of a nucleicacid or polypeptide means a portion having the minimal sizecharacteristics of such sequences, or any larger fragment of the fulllength molecule, up to and including the full length molecule. Afragment of a polynucleotide of the disclosure may encode anenzymatically active portion of a genetic regulatory element. Anenzymatically active portion of a genetic regulatory element can beprepared by isolating a portion of one of the polynucleotides of thedisclosure that comprises the genetic regulatory element and assessingactivity as described herein. Similarly, a portion of a polypeptide maybe 4 amino acids, 5 amino acids, 6 amino acids, 7 amino acids, and soon, going up to the full length polypeptide. The length of the portionto be used will depend on the particular application. A portion of anucleic acid useful as a hybridization probe may be as short as 12nucleotides; in some embodiments, it is 20 nucleotides. A portion of apolypeptide useful as an epitope may be as short as 4 amino acids. Aportion of a polypeptide that performs the function of the full-lengthpolypeptide would generally be longer than 4 amino acids.

Variant polynucleotides also encompass sequences derived from amutagenic and recombinogenic procedure such as DNA shuffling. Strategiesfor such DNA shuffling are known in the art. See, for example, Stemmer(1994) PNAS 91:10747-10751; Stemmer (1994) Nature 370:389-391; Crameriet al. (1997) Nature Biotech. 15:436-438; Moore et al. (1997) J. Mol.Biol. 272:336-347; Zhang et al. (1997) PNAS 94:4504-4509; Crameri et al.(1998) Nature 391:288-291; and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,605,793 and 5,837,458.

For PCR amplifications of the polynucleotides disclosed herein,oligonucleotide primers can be designed for use in PCR reactions toamplify corresponding DNA sequences from cDNA or genomic DNA extractedfrom any organism of interest. Methods for designing PCR primers and PCRcloning are generally known in the art and are disclosed in Sambrook etal. (2001) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3^(rd) ed., ColdSpring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, N.Y.). See also Innis et al.,eds. (1990) PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications (AcademicPress, New York); Innis and Gelfand, eds. (1995) PCR Strategies(Academic Press, New York); and Innis and Gelfand, eds. (1999) PCRMethods Manual (Academic Press, New York). Known methods of PCR include,but are not limited to, methods using paired primers, nested primers,single specific primers, degenerate primers, gene-specific primers,vector-specific primers, partially-mismatched primers, and the like.

The term “primer” as used herein refers to an oligonucleotide which iscapable of annealing to the amplification target allowing a DNApolymerase to attach, thereby serving as a point of initiation of DNAsynthesis when placed under conditions in which synthesis of primerextension product is induced, i.e., in the presence of nucleotides andan agent for polymerization such as DNA polymerase and at a suitabletemperature and pH. The (amplification) primer is preferably singlestranded for maximum efficiency in amplification. Preferably, the primeris an oligodeoxyribonucleotide. The primer must be sufficiently long toprime the synthesis of extension products in the presence of the agentfor polymerization. The exact lengths of the primers will depend on manyfactors, including temperature and composition (A/T vs. G/C content) ofprimer. A pair of bi-directional primers consists of one forward and onereverse primer as commonly used in the art of DNA amplification such asin PCR amplification.

As used herein, “promoter” refers to a DNA sequence capable ofcontrolling the expression of a coding sequence or functional RNA. Insome embodiments, the promoter sequence consists of proximal and moredistal upstream elements, the latter elements often referred to asenhancers. Accordingly, an “enhancer” is a DNA sequence that canstimulate promoter activity, and may be an innate element of thepromoter or a heterologous element inserted to enhance the level ortissue specificity of a promoter. Promoters may be derived in theirentirety from a native gene, or be composed of different elementsderived from different promoters found in nature, or even comprisesynthetic DNA segments. It is understood by those skilled in the artthat different promoters may direct the expression of a gene indifferent tissues or cell types, or at different stages of development,or in response to different environmental conditions. It is furtherrecognized that since in most cases the exact boundaries of regulatorysequences have not been completely defined, DNA fragments of somevariation may have identical promoter activity.

As used herein, the phrases “recombinant construct”, “expressionconstruct”, “chimeric construct”, “construct”, and “recombinant DNAconstruct” are used interchangeably herein. Also, “construct”, “vector”,and “plasmid” are used interchangeably herein. A recombinant constructcomprises an artificial combination of nucleic acid fragments, e.g.,regulatory and coding sequences that are not found together in nature.For example, a chimeric construct may comprise regulatory sequences andcoding sequences that are derived from different sources, or regulatorysequences and coding sequences derived from the same source, butarranged in a manner different than that found in nature. Such constructmay be used by itself or may be used in conjunction with a vector. If avector is used then the choice of vector is dependent upon the methodthat will be used to transform host cells. For example, a plasmid vectorcan be used. The skilled artisan is well aware of the genetic elementsthat must be present on the vector in order to successfully transform,select and propagate host cells comprising any of the isolated nucleicacid fragments of the disclosure. The skilled artisan will alsorecognize that different independent transformation events will resultin different levels and patterns of expression (Jones et al., (1985)EMBO J. 4:2411-2418; De Almeida et al., (1989) Mol. Gen. Genetics218:78-86), and thus that multiple events must be screened in order toobtain lines displaying the desired expression level and pattern. Suchscreening may be accomplished by Southern analysis of DNA, Northernanalysis of mRNA expression, immunoblotting analysis of proteinexpression, or phenotypic analysis, among others. Vectors can beplasmids, viruses, bacteriophages, pro-viruses, phagemids, transposons,artificial chromosomes, and the like, that replicate autonomously or canintegrate into a chromosome of a host cell. A vector can also be a nakedRNA polynucleotide, a naked DNA polynucleotide, a polynucleotidecomposed of both DNA and RNA within the same strand, apoly-lysine-conjugated DNA or RNA, a peptide-conjugated DNA or RNA, aliposome-conjugated DNA, or the like, that is not autonomouslyreplicating. As used herein, the term “expression” refers to theproduction of a functional end-product e.g., an mRNA or a protein(precursor or mature).

“Operably linked” means in this context the sequential arrangement ofthe promoter polynucleotide according to the disclosure with a furtheroligo- or polynucleotide, resulting in transcription of said furtherpolynucleotide.

As used herein, the term “display” refers to the exposure of thepolypeptide of interest on the outer surface of the minicell. By way ofnon-limiting example, the displayed polypeptide may be a protein or aprotein domain which is either expressed on the minicell membrane or isassociated with the minicell membrane such that the extracellular domainor domain of interest is exposed on the outer surface of the minicell(expressed and displayed on the surface of the minicell or expressed inthe parental cell to be displayed on the surface of thesegregated/budded minicell). In all instances, the “displayed” proteinor protein domain is available for interaction with extracellularcomponents. A membrane-associated protein may have more than oneextracellular domain, and a minicell of the disclosure may display morethan one membrane-associated protein.

As used herein, the terms “polypeptide”, “protein” and “protein domain”refer to a macromolecule made up of a single chain of amino acids joinedby peptide bonds. Polypeptides of the invention may comprise naturallyoccurring amino acids, synthetic amino acids, genetically encoded aminoacids, non-genetically encoded amino acids, and combinations thereof.Polypeptides may include both L-form and D-form amino acids.

As used herein, the term “enzymatically active polypeptide” refers to apolypeptide which encodes an enzymatically functional protein. The term“enzymatically active polypeptide” includes but not limited to fusionproteins which perform a biological function. Exemplary enzymaticallyactive polypeptides, include but not limited to enzymes/enzyme moiety(e.g. wild type, variants, or engineered variants) that specificallybind to certain receptors or biological/chemical substrates to effect abiological function such as biological signal transduction or chemicalinactivation.

As used herein, “industrially suitable” refers to utilization, andapplications, of the anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform, in contexts outside of internally administered animalhost applications, e.g. outside of administered human therapeutics.

As used herein, the term “protease-deficient strain” refers to a strainthat is deficient in one or more endogenous proteases. For example,protease deficiency can be created by deleting, removing, knock-out,silencing, suppressing, or otherwise downregulating at lease onendogenous protease. Said proteases can include catastrophic proteases.For example, BL21 (DE3) E. coli strain is deficient in proteases Lon andOmpT. E. coli strain has cytoplasmic proteases and membrane proteasesthat can significantly decrease protein production and localization tothe membrane. In some embodiments, a protease-deficient strain canmaximize production and localization of a protein of interest to themembrane of the cell.

As used herein, the term “anucleated cell” refers to a cell that lacks anucleus and also chromosomal DNA and which can also be termed as an“anucleate cell”. Because eubacterial and archaebacterial cells, unlikeeukaryotic cells, naturally do not have a nucleus (a distinct organellethat contains chromosomes), these non-eukaryotic cells are of coursemore accurately described as being “without chromosomes” or“achromosomal.” Nonetheless, those skilled in the art often use the term“anucleated” when referring to bacterial minicells in addition to othereukaryotic minicells. Accordingly, in the present disclosure, the term“minicells” encompasses derivatives of eubacterial cells that lack achromosome; derivatives of archaebacterial cells that lack theirchromosome(s), and anucleate derivatives of eukaryotic cells that lack anucleus and consequently a chromosome. Thus, in the present disclosure,“anucleated cell” or “anucleate cell” can be interchangeably used withthe term “achromosomal cell.”

As used herein, the term “binding site,” means a molecular structure orcompound, such as a protein, a polypeptide, a polysaccharide, aglycoprotein, a lipoprotein, a fatty acid, a lipid or a nucleic acid ora particular region in such molecular structure or compound or aparticular conformation of such molecular structure or compound, or acombination or complex of such molecular structures or compounds. Incertain embodiments, at least one binding site is on an intact livingplant. An “intact living plant,” as used herein, means a plant as itgrows, whether it grows in soil, in water or in artificial substrate,and whether it grows in the field, in a greenhouse, in a yard, in agarden, in a pot or in hydroponic culture systems. An intact livingplant preferably comprises all plant parts (roots, stem, branches,leaves, needles, thorns, flowers, seeds etc.) that are normally presenton such plant in nature, although some plant parts, such as, e.g.,flowers, may be absent during certain periods in the plant's life cycle.

A “binding domain,” as used herein, means the whole or part of aproteinaceous (protein, protein-like or protein containing) moleculethat is capable of binding using specific intermolecular interactions toa target molecule. A binding domain can be a naturally occurringmolecule, it can be derived from a naturally occurring molecule, or itcan be entirely artificially designed. A binding domain can be based ondomains present in proteins, including but not limited to microbialproteins, protease inhibitors, toxins, fibronectin, lipocalins,single-chain antiparallel coiled coil proteins or repeat motif proteins.Non-limiting examples of such binding domains are carbohydrate bindingmodules (CBM) such as cellulose binding domain to be targeted to plants.In some embodiments, a cell adhesion moiety comprises a binding domain.

Minicells

Minicells are the result of aberrant, asymmetric cell division, andcontain membranes, peptidoglycan, ribosomes, RNA, protein, and oftenplasmids but no chromosome. (Frazer A C and Curtiss III, Production,Properties and Utility of Bacterial Minicells, Curr. Top. Microbial.Immunol. 69:1-84 (1975)). Because minicells lack chromosomal DNA,minicells cannot divide or grow, but they can continue other cellularprocesses, such as ATP synthesis, replication and transcription ofplasmid DNA, and translation of mRNA. Although chromosomes do notsegregate into minicells, extrachromosomal and/or episomal geneticexpression elements may segregate, or may be introduced into minicellsafter segregation from parent cells.

In embodiments, the minicells described herein are non-naturallyoccurring.

In some embodiments, the disclosure provides a composition comprising aplurality of minicells, wherein each minicell of said pluralitycomprises an enzymatically active polypeptide displayed on the surfaceof the minicell, wherein said enzymatically active polypeptide hasenzymatic activity. The enzymatic activity is derived from enzymaticallyactive polypeptides disclosed in the present disclosure. In someembodiments, the invention provides a composition comprising a pluralityof intact, bacterially-derived minicells, wherein each minicell of saidplurality comprises an enzymatically active polypeptide displayed on thesurface of the bacterial minicell, wherein said enzymatically activepolypeptide has enzymatic activity. In some embodiments, the compositioncomprises minicells which further comprise a second polypeptidedisplayed on the surface of the bacterial minicell, to increase adhesionto a subject and/or subjects including, but are not limited tosubstrates of enzymes, receptors, metal, plastic, soil, bacteria, fungi,pathogens, germs, plants, animals, human, and the like. In someembodiments, the composition comprises a mixture of minicells, whereincertain minicells within the mixed minicell population display theenzymatically active polypeptide or display the second polypeptideincluding subject adhesion increasing polypeptide or display both.

Eubacterial Minicells

One type of minicell is a eubacterial minicell. For reviews ofeubacterial cell cycle and division processes, see Rothfield et al.,Annu. Rev. Genet., 33:423-48, 1999; Jacobs et al., Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA, 96:5891-5893, May, 1999; Koch, Appl. and Envir. Microb., Vol.66, No. 9, pp. 3657-3663; Bouche and Pichoff, Mol Microbiol, 1998. 29:19-26; Khachatourians et al., J Bacteriol, 1973. 116: 226-229; Cooper,Res Microbiol, 1990. 141: 17-29; and Danachie and Robinson, “CellDivision: Parameter Values and the Process,” in: Escherichia Coli andSalmonella Typhimurium: Cellular and Molecular Biology, Neidhardt,Frederick C., Editor in Chief, American Society for Microbiology,Washington, D.C., 1987, Volume 2, pages 1578-1592, and references citedtherein; and Lutkenhaus et al., “Cell Division,” Chapter 101 in:Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium: Cellular and MolecularBiology, 2^(nd) Ed., Neidhardt, Frederick C., Editor in Chief, AmericanSociety for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., 1996, Volume 2, pages1615-1626, and references cited therein. When DNA replication and/orchromosomal partitioning is altered, membrane-bounded vesicles “pinchoff” from parent cells before transfer of chromosomal DNA is completed.As a result of this type of dysfunctional division, minicells areproduced which contain an intact outer membrane, inner membrane, cellwall, and all of the cytoplasm components but do not contain chromosomalDNA.

In some embodiments, the bacterially-derived minicells are produced froma strain, including, but are not limited to a strain of Escherichiacoli, Bacillus spp., Salmonella spp., Listeria spp., Mycobacterium spp.,Shigella spp., or Yersinia spp. In some embodiments, thebacterially-derived minicells are produced from a strain that naturallyproduces minicells. Such natural minicell producing strains produceminicells, for example, at a 2: 1 ratio (2 bacterial cells for every oneminicell). In certain embodiments, exemplary bacterial strains thatnaturally produce minicells include, but are not limited to E. colistrain number P678-54, Coli Genetic Stock Center (CGSC) number: 4928 andB. subtilis strain CU403.

As one example, mutations in B. subtilis smc genes result in theproduction of minicells (Britton et al., 1998, Genes and Dev.12:1254-1259; Moriya et al., 1998, Mol Microbiol 29:179-87). Disruptionof smc genes in various cells is predicted to result in minicellproduction therefrom.

As another example, mutations in the divIVA gene of Bacillus subtilisresults in minicell production. When expressed in E. coli, B. subtilisor yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, a DivIVA-GFP protein is targeted tocell division sites therein, even though clear homologs of DivIVA do notseem to exist in E. coli, B. subtilis or S. pombe (David et al., 2000,EMBO J. 19:2719-2727. Over- or under-expression of B. subtilis DivIVA ora homolog thereof may be used to reduce minicell production in a varietyof cells.

In some embodiments, the minicell-producing bacteria is a Gram-negativebacteria. The Gram-negative bacteria includes, but is not limited to,Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. including Salmonella typhimuriumShigella spp. including Shigella flexneri, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,Agrobacterium, Campylobacter jejuni, Lactobacillus spp., Neisseriagonorrhoeae, and Legionella pneumophila. In some embodiments, theminicell-producing gram-negative bacteria can produce minicellsnaturally caused by endogenous or exogenous mutation(s) associated withcell division and/or chromosomal partitioning. In some embodiments, theminicell-producing bacteria comprises endogenous or exogenous gene(s)that is involved in cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning, wherethe gene is genetically modified such as by homologous recombination,compared to a corresponding wild-type gene. In some embodiments, theminicell-producing gram-negative bacteria is deficient in proteaseand/or its activity naturally and/or by genetic engineering techniquesdisclosed herein. In some embodiments, the protease-deficientminicell-producing gram-negative bacteria comprises a recombinantexpression vector comprising a gene or genes that is involved in aprotein of interest disclosed in the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, the minicell-producing bacteria can be aGram-positive bacteria. The Gram-positive bacteria includes, but is notlimited to, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, CorynebacteriumGlutamicum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Staphylococcus spp., orStreptococcus spp. In some embodiments, the minicell-producinggram-positive bacteria can produce minicells naturally caused byendogenous or exogenous mutation(s) associated with cell division and/orchromosomal partitioning. In some embodiments, the minicell-producinggram-positive bacteria comprises endogenous or exogenous gene(s) that isinvolved in cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning, where thegene is genetically modified such as by homologous recombination,compared to a corresponding wild-type gene. In some embodiments, theminicell-producing gram-positive bacteria is deficient in proteaseand/or its activity naturally and/or by genetic engineering techniquesdisclosed herein. In some embodiments, the protease-deficientminicell-producing gram-positive bacteria comprises a recombinantexpression vector comprising a gene or genes that is involved in aprotein of interest disclosed in the present disclosure.

The minicell-producing bacteria can be a Extremophilic bacteria. TheExtremophilic bacteria includes, but is not limited to, Thermophilesincluding Thermus aquaticus, Psychrophiles, Piezophiles, Halophilicbacteria, Acidophile, Alkaliphile, Anaerobe, Lithoautotroph, Oligotroph,Metallotolerant, Oligotroph, Xerophil or Polyextremophile. In someembodiments, the minicell-producing Extremophilic bacteria can produceminicells naturally caused by endogenous or exogenous mutation(s)associated with cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning. In someembodiments, the minicell-producing Extremophilic bacteria comprisesendogenous or exogenous gene(s) that is involved in cell division and/orchromosomal partitioning, where the gene is genetically modified such asby homologous recombination, compared to a corresponding wild-type gene.In some embodiments, the minicell-producing Extremophilic bacteria isdeficient in protease and/or its activity naturally and/or by geneticengineering techniques disclosed herein. In some embodiments, theprotease-deficient minicell-producing Extremophilic bacteria comprises arecombinant expression vector comprising a gene or genes that isinvolved in a protein of interest disclosed in the present disclosure.

Eukaryotic Minicells

Achromosomal eukaryotic minicells (i.e., anucleate cells) are within thescope of the disclosure. Yeast cells are used to generate fungalminicells. See, e.g., Lee et al., Ibd1p, a possible spindle pole bodyassociated protein, regulates nuclear division and bud separation inSaccharomyces cerevisiae, Biochim Biophys Acta 3:239-253, 1999; Kopeckaet al., A method of isolating anucleate yeast protoplasts unable tosynthesize the glucan fibrillar component of the wall J Gen Microbiol81:111-120, 1974; and Yoo et al., Fission yeast Hrp1, a chromodomainATPase, is required for proper chromosome segregation and itsoverexpression interferes with chromatin condensation, Nucl Acids Res28:2004-2011, 2000. Cell division in yeast is reviewed by Gould andSimanis, The control of septum formation in fission yeast, Genes & Dev11:2939-51, 1997).

In some embodiments, the eukaryotic minicells can be produced from yeastcells, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris and/orSchizosaccharomyces pombe.

As one example, mutations in the yeast genes encoding TRF topoisomerasesresult in the production of minicells, and a human homolog of yeast TRFgenes has been stated to exist (Castano et al., 1996, Nucleic Acids Res24:2404-10). Mutations in a yeast chromodomain ATPase, Hrp1, result inabnormal chromosomal segregation; (Yoo et al., 2000 Nuc. Acids Res.28:2004-2011). Disruption of TRF and/or Hrp1 function is predicted tocause minicell production in various cells. Genes involved in septumformation in fission yeast (see, e.g., Gould et al., 1997 Genes and Dev.11:2939-2951) can be used in like fashion.

Platelets are a non-limiting example of eukaryotic minicells. Plateletsare anucleate cells with little or no capacity for de novo proteinsynthesis. The tight regulation of protein synthesis in platelets (Smithet al., 1999, Vasc Med 4:165-72) may allow for the over-production ofexogenous proteins and, at the same time, under-production of endogenousproteins. Thrombin-activated expression elements such as those that areassociated with Bcl-3 (Weyrich et al., Signal-dependent translation of aregulatory protein, Bcl-3, in activated human platelets, Cel Biology95:5556-5561, 1998) may be used to modulate the expresion of exogneousgenes in platelets.

As another non-limiting example, eukaryotic minicells are generated fromtumor cell lines (Gyongyossy-Issa and Khachatourians, Tumour minicells:single, large vesicles released from cultured mastocytoma cells (1985)Tissue Cell 17:801-809; Melton, Cell fusion-induced mouse neuroblastomasHPRT revertants with variant enzyme and elevated HPRT protein levels(1981) Somatic Cell Genet. 7: 331-344).

Yeast cells are used to generate fungal minicells. See, e.g., Lee etal., Ibd1p, a possible spindle pole body associated protein, regulatesnuclear division and bud separation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, BiochimBiophys Acta 3:239-253, 1999; Kopecka et al., A method of isolatinganucleate yeast protoplasts unable to synthesize the glucan fibrillarcomponent of the wall J Gen Microbiol 81:111-120, 1974; and Yoo et al.,Fission yeast Hrp1, a chromodomain ATPase, is required for properchromosome segregation and its overexpression interferes with chromatincondensation, Nucl Acids Res 28:2004-2011, 2000. Cell division in yeastis reviewed by Gould and Simanis, The control of septum formation infission yeast, Genes & Dev 11:2939-51, 1997). In some embodiments, thepresent disclosure teaches production of yeast minicells.

Archaebacterial Minicells

The term “archaebacterium” is defined as is used in the art and includesextreme thermophiles and other Archaea (Woese, C. R., L. Magrum. G. Fox.1978. Archaebacteria. Journal of Molecular Evolution. 11:245-252). Threetypes of Archaebacteria are halophiles, thermophiles and methanogens. Byphysiological definition, the Archaea (informally, archaes) aresingle-cell extreme thermophiles (including thermoacidophiles), sulfatereducers, methanogens, and extreme halophiles. The thermophilic membersof the Archaea include the most thermophilic organisms cultivated in thelaboratory. The aerobic thermophiles are also acidophilic; they oxidizesulfur in their environment to sulfuric acid. The extreme halophiles areaerobic or microaerophilic and include the most salt tolerant organismsknown. The sulfate-reducing Archaea reduce sulfate to sulfide in extremeenvironment. Methanogens are strict anaerobes, yet they gave rise to atleast two separate aerobic groups: the halophiles and athermoacidophilic lineage. Non-limiting examples of halophiles includeHalobacterium cutirubrum and Halogerax mediterranei. Non-limitingexamples of methanogens include Methanococcus voltae; Methanococcusvanniela; Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum; Methanococcus voltae;Methanothermus fervidus; and Methanosarcina barkeri. Non-limitingexamples of thermophiles include Azotobacter vinelandii; Thermoplasmaacidophilum; Pyrococcus horikoshii; Pyrococcus furiosus; andCrenarchaeota (extremely thermophilic archaebacteria) species such asSulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius.

Archaebacterial minicells are within the scope of the invention.Archaebacteria have homologs of eubacterial minicell genes and proteins,such as the MinD polypeptide from Pyrococcus furiosus (Hayashi et al.,EMBO J. 20:1819-28, 2001). It is thus possible to create Archaebacterialminicells by methods such as, by way of non-limiting example,overexpressing the product of a min gene isolated from a prokaryote oran archaebacterium; or by disrupting expression of a min gene in anarchaebacterium of interest by, e.g., the introduction of mutationsthereof or antisense molecules thereto. See, e.g., Laurence et al.,Genetics 152:1315-1323, 1999.

By physiological definition, the Archaea (informally, archaes) aresingle-cell extreme thermophiles (including thermoacidophiles), sulfatereducers, methanogens, and extreme halophiles. The thermophilic membersof the Archaea include the most thermophilic organisms cultivated in thelaboratory. The aerobic thermophiles are also acidophilic; they oxidizesulfur in their environment to sulfuric acid. The extreme halophiles areaerobic or microaerophilic and include the most salt tolerant organismsknown. The sulfate-reducing Archaea reduce sulfate to sulfide in extremeenvironment. Methanogens are strict anaerobes, yet they gave rise to atleast two separate aerobic groups: the halophiles and athermoacidophilic lineage. In some embodiments, the present disclosureteaches production of archaeal minicells.

Bacterial Minicell Production

Minicells are produced by parent cells having a mutation in, and/oroverexpressing, or under expressing a gene involved in cell divisionand/or chromosomal partitioning, or from parent cells that have beenexposed to certain conditions, that result in aberrant fission ofbacterial cells and/or partitioning in abnormal chromosomal segregationduring cellular fission (division). The term “parent cells” or “parentalcells” refers to the cells from which minicells are produced. Minicells,most of which lack chromosomal DNA (Mulder et al., Mol Gen Genet, 221:87-93, 1990), are generally, but need not be, smaller than their parentcells. Typically, minicells produced from E. coli cells are generallyspherical in shape and are about 0.1 to about 0.3 um in diameter,whereas whole E. coli cells are about from about 1 to about 3 um indiameter and from about 2 to about 10 um in length. Micrographs of E.coli cells and minicells that have been stained with DAPI(4:6-diamidino-z-phenylindole), a compound that binds to DNA, show thatthe minicells do not stain while the parent E. coli are brightlystained. Such micrographs demonstrate the lack of chromosomal DNA inminicells. (Mulder et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 221:87-93, 1990).

Minicells are achromosomal, membrane-encapsulated biologicalnanoparticles (≤400 nm) that are formed by bacteria following adisruption in the normal division apparatus of bacterial cells.Minicells can also be 400 nm to 650 nm in size. In essence, minicellsare small, metabolically active replicas of normal bacterial cells withthe exception that they contain no chromosomal DNA and as such, arenon-dividing and non-viable. Although minicells do not containchromosomal DNA, the ability of plasmids, RNA, native and/orrecombinantly expressed proteins, and other metabolites have all beenshown to segregate into minicells. Some methods of construction ofminicell-producing bacterial strains are discussed in detail in U.S.patent application Ser. No. 10/154,951 (US Publication No.US/2003/0194798 A1), which is hereby incorporated by reference in itsentirety.

Disruptions in the coordination between chromosome replication and celldivision lead to minicell formation from the polar region of mostrod-shaped prokaryotes. Disruption of the coordination betweenchromosome replication and cell division can be facilitated through theoverexpression of some of the genes involved in septum formation andbinary fission. Alternatively, minicells can be produced in strains thatharbor mutations in genes that modulate septum formation and binaryfission. Impaired chromosome segregation mechanisms can also lead tominicell formation as has been shown in many different prokaryotes.

Plasmid Based Methods of Minicell Production

In some embodiments, minicell production can be achieved by theoverexpression or mutation of genes involved in the segregation ofnascent chromosomes into daughter cells. For example, mutations in theparC or mukB loci of E. coli have been demonstrated to produceminicells. Both affect separate requisite steps in the chromosomesegregation process in bacteria. Manipulation of wild type levels of anygiven gene involved in the chromosome segregation process that result inminicell production will have similar effects in other family members.

Because the cell division and chromosome replication processes are socritical to survival, there exists a high level of genetic andfunctional conservancy amongst prokaryotic family members with respectto genes responsible for these processes. The overexpression or mutationof a cell division gene capable of driving minicell production in onefamily member, can be used to produce minicells in another. For example,it has been shown that the overexpression E. coli ftsZ gene in otherEnterobacteriacea family members such as Salmonella spp. and Shigellaspp as well as other class members such as Pseudomonas spp. will resultin similar levels of minicell production.

In some embodiments, minicells can be produced in E. coli by theoverproduction of the protein FtsZ which is an essential component ofthe Min division system by which E. coli operates. This proteinpolymerizes during cell division to form a ring-like structure at thepotential site of division. This ring recruits other proteins whichcomplete the division. Overproduction of this protein in E. coli resultsin the inability for this ring to be spatially restricted to themidsection of the cell, thus resulting in production of minicells uponcell division. Because the overproduction of FtsZ can create minicells,it can be overexpressed using a plasmid based system.

The same can be demonstrated in the mutation-based minicell producingbacterial strains. For example, deletion of the Min locus in any ofbacterial strains results in minicell production. Cell division genes inwhich mutation can lead to minicell formation include but are notlimited to the min genes (such as minC, minD, and minE).

In some embodiments, E. coli rely on the min system in order to ensureproper replication of parent cells into daughter cells. This min system(known as the minB operon) consists of 3 parts, minD, minC, and minE.These genes work together in order to control the placement of theZ-ring which is comprised of polymerized FtsZ protein. MinC consists oftwo distinct domains, both of which interact directly with the FtsZprotein in order to inhibit polymerization (Z-ring formation). MinD is aprotein that is associated with the membrane that forms at one of thecell's poles and polymerizes toward the cell's mid-point. It binds MinCwhich is distributed throughout the cytoplasm. MinE is a protein thatbinds to MinD as well and releases MinC. It polymerizes into a ring likeshape and oscillates from pole to pole in the cell.

This system results in the sequestering of MinC bound to FtsZ(inactivating it) to the polar ends of the cell. By doing this, and dueto the oscillating effect of MinE, the system creates a high chance thatFtsZ polymerizes in the middle of cell and forms a Z-ring. This sets thedivision septum of the cell at the midpoint in the cell, which resultsin two cells with equal genetic information upon completion of division.

In some embodiments, this system can be manipulated in order to shiftthe Z-ring to a polar end of the cell which excludes the nucleoid DNAupon completion of replication. The Z-ring can be shifted by notallowing the cell to sequester MinC to the polar ends of the cell. Inthe absence of MinC or MinD, or overexpression of MinE, E. coli cellswill form achromosomal and/or anucleate cells. The FtsZ and the Minsystems for causing asymmetrical cell division are exemplified by Pietet al, 1990, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:1129-1133 and Xuan-Chuan etal, 2000, J. Bacteriol. 182(21):6203-62138, each of which isincorporated herein by reference.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure is compatible with allgenetic design and cloning methods. That is, in some embodiments, thepresent disclosure teaches the use of traditional cloning techniquessuch as polymerase chain reaction, restriction enzyme digestions,ligation, homologous recombination, RT PCR, and others generally knownin the art and are disclosed in for example: Sambrook et al. (2001)Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3^(rd) ed., Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press, Plainview, N.Y.), incorporated herein by reference.

Genes can be introduced in a site directed fashion using homologousrecombination. Homologous recombination permits site specificmodifications in endogenous genes and thus inherited or acquiredmutations may be corrected, and/or novel alterations may be engineeredinto the genome. Homologous recombination and site-directed integrationin plants are discussed in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,451,513;5,501,967 and 5,527,695.

In some embodiments, minicells are produced by deleting, mutating,knocking out, or disrupting minC, minD, and/or minC and minD gene(s) inbacteria by traditional gene engineering techniques including homologousrecombination. In other embodiments, minicells are produced byoverexpressing certain genes such as ftsZ and/or minE in bacteria.

Controlled Production of Minicells

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches mutating cellpopulations by introducing, deleting, or replacing selected portions ofgenomic DNA. Thus, in some embodiments, the present disclosure teachesmethods for targeting mutations to a specific locus such as ftsZ, minC,minD, minC/D, and minE. In other embodiments, the present disclosureteaches the use of gene editing technologies such as ZFNs, TALENS,CRISPR or homing endonucleases, to selectively edit target DNA regions.In aspects, the targeted DNA regions is ftsZ, minC, minD, minC/D, andminE.

Engineered nucleases such as zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), TranscriptionActivator Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs), engineered homingendonucleases, and RNA or DNA guided endonucleases, such as CRISPR/Cassuch as Cas9 or CPF1, are particularly appropriate to carry out some ofthe methods of the present disclosure. Additionally or alternatively,RNA targeting systems can use used, such as CRISPR/Cas systems have RNAtargeting nucleases.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches uses of gene editingusing a Type II CRISPR system such as Cas9 Type II CRISPR systems, or“Cas9-like” systems. Type II systems rely on a i) single endonucleaseprotein, ii) a transactiving crRNA (tracrRNA), and iii) a crRNA where a˜20-nucleotide (nt) portion of the 5′ end of crRNA (i.e. “guidesequence” or “spacer”) is complementary to a target nucleic acid.

In some embodiments, the tracrRNA and crRNA components of a Type IIsystem can be replaced by a single-guide RNA (sgRNA). The sgRNA caninclude, for example, a nucleotide sequence that comprises an at least12-20 nucleotide sequence complementary to the target DNA sequence(guide sequence) and can include a common scaffold RNA sequence at its3′ end. As used herein, “a common scaffold RNA” refers to any RNAsequence that mimics the tracrRNA sequence or any RNA sequences thatfunction as a tracrRNA.

Cas9 endonucleases produce blunt end DNA breaks, and are recruited totarget DNA by a combination of a crRNA and a tracrRNA oligos, whichtether the endonuclease via complementary hybridization of the RNACRISPR complex. DNA recognition by the crRNA/endonuclease complexrequires additional complementary base-pairing with a protospaceradjacent motif (PAM) (e.g., 5′-NGG-3′) located in a 3′ portion of thetarget DNA, downstream from the target protospacer. (Jinek, M., et. al.,Science. 2012:337; 816-821). In some embodiments, the PAM motifrecognized by a Cas9 varies for different Cas9 proteins.

In some embodiments, one skilled in the art can appreciate that the Cas9disclosed herein can be any variant described in the literature,including but not limited to the functional mutations described in:Fonfara et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 2014 February; 42(4):2577-90;Nishimasu H. et al. Cell. 2014 Feb. 27; 156(5):935-49; Jinek M. et al.Science. 2012 337:816-21; and Jinek M. et al. Science. 2014 Mar. 14;343(6176); see also U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/842,859 filedMar. 15, 2013, which is hereby incorporated by reference; further, seeU.S. Pat. Nos. 8,697,359; 8,771,945; 8,795,965; 8,865,406; 8,871,445;8,889,356; 8,895,308; 8,906,616; 8,932,814; 8,945,839; 8,993,233; and8,999,641, which are all hereby incorporated by reference. Thus, in someembodiments, the systems and methods disclosed herein can be used withthe wild type Cas9 protein having double-stranded nuclease activity,Cas9 mutants that act as single stranded nickases, deactivated Cas9(dCas9) that has no nuclease activity, or other mutants with modifiednuclease activity.

In some examples, a Type II nuclease may be catalytically dead (e.g.dCas9, “dead Cas9,” “deactivated Cas9”) such that it binds to a targetsequence, but does not cleave.

In some embodiments, minicell production results from the disruption ofthe Min division system. This can be done with overexpression of FtsZ ina plasmid based system like described above, or by stopping expressionof a gene within the Min system. Stopping expression of gene can be doneby removing the gene (non-inducible minicell formation) or it can bedone by knocking down the gene. Knocking down the gene allows forcontrollable repression or expression of the gene of interest. In someembodiments, the present disclosure teaches to integrate a dCAS9 genewithin a non-essential operon within the E. coli genome. dCAS9 is avariant of the CAS9 protein (CRISPR) that has had its active sitealtered to no longer be able to edit genomes, but can still bind tohighly specific segments of the genome using a guide RNA. This proteincan stop transcription of the gene if bound.

In some embodiments, the dCAS9 gene can be placed under induciblecontrol so that its expression would be controlled. The guide RNAcorresponding to the knockout within the Min system could be included ona plasmid or cut into the genome and placed under inducible control.Upon induction with this system, the guide RNA would direct the dCAS9protein to the gene within the Min system in order to stop itsexpression. The stopping of expression of this gene such as minC, minD,and minC/D would result in the formation of minicells.

Antibiotic Resistance Knock In-Knock Out

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches uses of the geneticmanipulation technique using Lambda-Red recombination system in order toedit genome integrated with exogenous expression cassette such as anselectable marker such as antibiotic resistant gene. In someembodiments, an selectable marker such as antibiotic resistant gene isintegrated into the host genome (e.g. bacteria) in order to knockoutminC/D/CD gene for inducing minicell production. If the marker withantibiotic resistance is no longer desired after successfully selectingthe minicells in which the target gene (such as minC/D/CD) is knockedout, the flippase can be used to remove the integrated antibioticresistant gene cassette from the host genome. A fragment of linear DNAis inserted into the genome directed by that fragment homology to thegenome. This can be used to knock in genes of interest or to knockoutgenes of interest by replacing them with an antibiotic resistancecassette such as Chloramphenicol-resistant gene, kanamycin-resistantgene, spectinomycin-resistant gene, streptomycin-resistant gene,ampicillin-resistant gene, tetracycline-resistant gene,erythromycin-resistant gene, bleomycin-resistant gene, andbleomycin-resistant gene. A successful genetic manipulation is thenselected for using this antibiotic resistance cassette. If a flippaserecombination target (FRT) site is included within the resistancecassette for further genetic manipulations, it can be used for removingthe antibiotic resistant gene integrated into the genome in vivo afterselection of target minicells. The enzyme used for this is recombinaseflippase and is often expressed from a plasmid that can be removed fromthe cell line using a temperature sensitive origin of replication.Recombinase flippase recognizes two identical FRT sites on both the 5′and 3′ ends of the antibiotic resistance cassette and removes the DNAbetween the two sites. In some embodiments, the FRT site can be includedwithin an antibiotic resistance cassette to remove the antibioticresistance cassette after its use.

Strains for Minicell Production

A E. coli P678-54 strain is obtained from Coli Genetic Stock Center(CGSC), and is used to produce minicells (Adler et al., 1967, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 57:321-326; Inselburg J, 1970 J. Bacteriol.102(3):642-647; Frazer 1975, Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 69:1-84).

Protease-Deficient Bacterial Strains

The present disclosure provides the production of minicells from Bstrains using genetically-engineering techniques including B strainsincluding BL21, BL21 (DE3), and BL21-AI are deficient in Lon protease(cytoplasm) and OmpT protease (outer membrane). Accordingly, B strainsas protease-deficient strains can be utilized to createprotease-deficient and/or protease-deficient minicells. The DE3designation means that respective strains contain the λDE3 lysogen thatcarries the gene for T7 RNA polymerase under control of the lacUV5promoter. IPTG is required to maximally induce expression of the T7 RNApolymerase in order to express recombinant genes cloned downstream of aT7 promoter. BL21(DE3) is suitable for expression from a T7 or T7-lacpromoter or promoters recognized by the E. coli RNA polymerase: e.g.lac, tac, trc, ParaBAD, PrhaBAD and also the T5 promoter. The genotypeof BL21 (DE3) is: fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λsBamHlo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i2l Δnin5.

BL21-AI E. coli contains a chromosomal insertion of the gene encoding T7RNA polymerase (RNAP) into the araB locus of the araBAD operon, placingregulation of T7 RNAP under the control of the arabinose-induciblearaBAD promoter. Therefore, this strain is especially useful for theexpression of genes that may be toxic to other BL21 strains where basalexpression of T7 RNAP is leaky. The BL21-AI strain does not contain theIon protease and is deficient in the outer membrane protease, OmpT. Thegenotype of BL21-AI is F⁻ompT hsdSB (r_(B) ⁻ m_(B) ⁻) gal dcmaraB::T7RNAP-tetA. The BL21-AI has an arabinose promoter that controlsthe production T7 RNA Polymerase, while the BL21 (DE3) has a lacpromoter that controls the production of the T7 RNA Polymerase. This issignificant because the lac promotion system is leaky. Therefore, theBL21-AI protein production is more tightly regulated due to thearabinose promotion system.

The present disclosure teaches that LPS (Lipopolysaccharide) modifiedBL21 (DE3) cells can be used. The LPS of the E. Coli is modified to besignificantly less toxic. This LPS modified BL21 (DE3) cells ifnecessary. This could also be branched out to other gram-negativebacterial cells. Safe usage of gram-negative cells can be beneficial foranucleated cell-based platform.

ClearColi® BL21(DE3) cells are the commercially available competentcells with a modified LPS (Lipid IVA) that does not trigger theendotoxic response in diverse cells. For example, ClearColi cells lackouter membrane agonists for hTLR4/MD-2 activation; therefore, activationof hTLR4/MD-2 signaling by ClearColi® is several orders of magnitudelower as compared with E. coli wild-type cells. Heterologous proteinsprepared from ClearColi® are virtually free of endotoxic activity. Afterminimal purification from ClearColi cells, proteins or plasmids (whichmay contain Lipid IVA) can be used in most applications withouteliciting an endotoxic response in human cells. In ClearColi cells, twoof the secondary acyl chains of the normally hexa-acylated LPS have beendeleted, eliminating a key determinant of endotoxicity in eukaryoticcells. The six acyl chains of the LPS are the trigger which isrecognized by the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in complex with myeloiddifferentiation factor 2 (MD-2), causing activation of NF-κB andproduction of proinflammatory cytokines. The deletion of the twosecondary acyl chains results in lipid IVA, which does not induce theformation of the activated heterotetrameric TLR4/MD-2 complex and thusdoes not trigger the endotoxic response. In ClearColi® BL21(DE3)Electrocompetent Cells 4 MA145 Rev. 310CT2016 addition, theoligosaccharide chain is deleted, making it easier to remove theresulting lipid IVA from any downstream product.

In some embodiments, protease-deficient minicells disclosed herein areproduced from protease-deficient parental strains including, but are notlimited to, BL21 (DE3), BL21-AI and LPS-modified BL21 (DE3). In otherembodiments, BL21 (DE3), BL21-AI and LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) strains aregenetically engineered by deleting, mutating, knocking out, ordisrupting minC, minD, and/or minC and minD gene(s) to induce minicellproduction. In other embodiments, BL21 (DE3), BL21-AI and LPS-modifiedBL21 (DE3) strains are genetically engineered by overexpressing ftsZand/or minE genes to induce minicell production.

In further embodiments, the present disclosure provides a newminicell-producing strain named as B8. This strain is theprotease-deficient minicell-producing strain without the T7 RNAPolymerase. This minicell strain is produced from the BL21 (DE3) strain.While knocking out minC/D/CD, the T7 RNA Polymerase was silenced due tothe homology of the introduced knockout via Lambda Red Transformation.This strain can be used for a need of a protease-deficient minicell, butnot having the T7 RNA Polymerase. In some embodiments, minicellsdisplayed an enzymatically active polypeptide such as complicated ortoxic proteins on their surface, need to be more controlled and slowerexpression of the desired but complicated or toxic proteins.

The present disclosure teaches genotypes of newly-generatedprotease-deficient minicell strains comprising i) minC-deletedBL21(DE3); fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λ sBamHloΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i2l Δnin5 ΔminC, ii)minD-deleted BL21(DE3); fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λsBamHlo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i2l Δnin5 ΔminD, iii)minC/D-deleted BL21(DE3); fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λDE3=λ sBamHlo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i2l Δnin5 ΔminCΔminD; iv) minC-deleted BL21-AI; F⁻ompT hsdSB (r_(B) ⁻ m_(B) ⁻) gal dcmaraB::T7RNAP-tetA ΔminC, v) minD-deleted BL21-AI; F⁻ompT hsdSB (r_(B) ⁻m_(B) ⁻) gal dcm araB::T7RNAP-tetA ΔminD, vi) minC/D-deleted BL21-AI;F⁻ompT hsdSB (r_(B) ⁻ m_(B) ⁻) gal dcm araB::T7RNAP-tet A ΔminC ΔminD;vii) minC-deleted LPS-modified BL21(DE3); msbA148 ΔgutQ ΔkdsD ΔlpxLΔlpxM ΔpagP ΔlpxP ΔeptA ΔminC, viii) minD-deleted LPS-modifiedBL21(DE3); msbA148 ΔgutQ ΔkdsD ΔlpxL ΔlpxM ΔpagP ΔlpxP ΔeptA ΔminD, ix)minC/D-deleted LPS-modified BL21(DE3); msbA148 ΔgutQ ΔkdsD ΔlpxL ΔlpxMΔpagP ΔlpxP ΔeptA ΔminC, ΔminD, x) minC-deleted B8 with suppression onT7 RNA polymerase activity; fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λDE3=λ sBamHlo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i2l Δnin5 ΔminC;xi) minD-deleted B8 with suppression on T7 RNA polymerase activity;fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=A sBamHlo ΔEcoRI-Bint::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i2l Δnin5 ΔminD; and xii) minC/D-deletedB8 with suppression on T7 RNA polymerase activity; fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal(A DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λ sBamHlo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7gene1) i21 Δnin5 ΔminC ΔminD.

Minicells that have segregated from parent cells lack chromosomal and/ornuclear components, but retain the cytoplasm and its contents, includingthe cellular machinery required for protein expression. In someembodiments, minicells are protease-deficient because the parent cellsare protease-deficient strains. Although chromosomes do not segregateinto minicells, extrachromosomal and/or episomal genetic expressionelements may segregate, or may be introduced into minicells aftersegregation from parent cells. In some embodiments, the disclosure isdrawn to protease-deficient minicells comprising an expression element,which may be an inducible expression element. The inducible expressionelement such as an inducible promoter can be introduced to a recombinantplasmid used for homologous recombination to knock out and/or deletegene(s) involved to cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning suchas minC, minD, and minC/D, a recombinant expression vector tooverexpress gene(s) involved to cell division and/or chromosomalpartitioning such as ftsZ and minE, and a recombinant expression vectorfor expressing an enzymatically active polypeptide including a proteinof interest disclosed herein. In further embodiments, the inducibleexpression element comprises expression sequences operably linked to anopen reading frame (ORF) that encodes proteins of interest disclosedherein. Optionally, at any point in the method, an inducing agent isprovided in order to induce expression of an ORF that encodes proteinsof interest disclosed herein.

In some embodiments, the disclosure teaches methods of making aprotease-deficient bacterial minicell comprising a recombinant fusionprotein that is not naturally found in parental cells. In someembodiment, the disclosure teaches method of preparingprotease-deficient minicells from the host cells.

In other embodiments, the present disclosure teaches production ofprotease-deficient minicells from B. subtilis strains such as CU403DIVIVA, CU403,DIVIVB,SPO−, CU403,DIVIVB and CU403,DIVIVB1 using bydeleting, mutating, knocking out, or disrupting gene encoding WprAprotease. FIG. 18 illustrate an exemplary recombinant vector for thispurpose of suppressing and/or removing WprA protease activity to makeprotease-deficient condition in B. subtilis.

B. subtilis genetic manipulations work slightly differently than geneticmanipulations in E. coli. B. subtilis is known to readily undergohomologous recombination if DNA containing homology to the existinggenome is inserted. This is unlike E. coli; E. coli has mechanisms inplace to degrade any non-natural linear DNA present. This difference canbe utilized in order to knockout genes by designing an antibioticresistance cassette flanked by homologous arms which correspond to thestart and end of the gene that is desired to be knockout out.

The present disclosure provides the production of minicells from B.subtilis using genetically-engineering techniques. In some embodiments,B. subtilis strains including, but are not limited to CU403 DIVIVA (BGSCNo. 1A196), CU403,DIVIVB,SPO− (BGSC No. 1A197), CU403,DIVIVB (BGSC No.1A292), CU403,DIVIVB1 (BGSC No. 1A513), KO7 can be used as parentalbacterial cells to produce minicells. B. subtilis strains are thecommercially available and can be obtained from Bacillus Genetic StockCenter (BGSC). The catalog of strains is available on the documentprovided by publicly accessible BGSC webpage(www.bgsc.org/_catalogs/Catpart1.pdf).

In some embodiments, Bacillus Subtilis stains including, but are notlimited to CU403 DIVIVA, CU403,DIVIVB,SPO−, CU403,DIVIVB andCU403,DIVIVB1 can be genetically modified by knocking out gene encodingWprA Protease in these strains. WprA protease is known as one of theharshest proteases.

In order to knock out, delete, and or remove WprA-encoding gene from B.subtilis strains, the pUC18 WprA-CamR vector is used as illustrated inFIG. 18 . This vector has the homologous arms corresponding to the genecoding for WprA cell wall protease that naturally occurs in B. subtiliswhich is undesirable for protein surface expression. These homologousarms flank a chloramphenicol resistance cassette in order to allow forselection. After the homologous recombination via the homologous armswithin the host cells, the WprA-encoding nucleotide except thehomologous arm is replaced with the chloramphenicol selection markergene. This plasmid can replicate within E. coli due to its origin ofreplication, thus when transformed into B. subtilis it cannot replicate.After transformation, colonies are selected for using chloramphenicol inorder to isolate the colonies in which the knockout of WprA successfullyoccurs. Because the plasmid cannot replicate in B. subtilis, only thecells can survive against the presence of chloramphenicol if therecombinant cassette having the chloramphenicol resistant marker gene isintegrated to the genome of the B. subtilis cell by homologousrecombination.

B. subtilis secretes no fewer than seven proteases during vegetativegrowth and stationary phase. Strains in which multiple protease geneshave been inactivated have proved to be superior to wild type strains inproduction of foreign proteins. The KO7 is prototrophic, free ofsecreted proteases, and have marker-free deletions in PY79 geneticbackground. This KO7 is available from the BGSC as accession number1A1133. KO7 Genotype: ΔnprE ΔaprE Δepr Δmpr ΔnprB Δvpr Δbpr

In some embodiments, a seven-protease deletion strain, B. subtilis K07,can be used for B. subtilis minicell production by knocking out DIV-IVAand DIV-IVB using genetic engineering techniques described in thepresent disclosure.

Minicell Separation and Purification

A variety of methods are used to separate minicells from parent cells(i.e., the cells from which the minicells are produced) in a mixture ofparent cells and minicells. In general, such methods are physical,biochemical and genetic, and can be used in combination.

Physical Separation of Minicells from Parent Cells

By way of non-limiting example, minicells are separated from parentcells glass-fiber filtration (Christen et al., Gene 23:195-198, 1983),and differential and zonal centrifugation (Barker et al., J. Gen.Microbiol. 111:387-396, 1979), size-exclusion chromatography, e.g.gel-filtration, differential sonication (Reeve, J. N., and N. H.Mendelson. 1973. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 53:1325-1330), andUV-irradiation (Tankersley, W. G., and J. M. Woodward. 1973. Proc SocExp Biol Med. 1974 March; 145(3): 802-805).

Some techniques involve different centrifugation techniques, e.g.,differential and zonal centrifugation. By way of non-limiting example,minicells may be purified by the double sucrose gradient purificationtechnique described by Frazer and Curtiss, Curr. Topics Microbiol.Immunol. 69:1-84, 1975. The first centrifugation involves differentialcentrifugation, which separates parent cells from minicells based ondifferences in size and/or density. The percent of sucrose in thegradient (graduated from about 5 to about 20%), Ficol or glycerol isdesigned to allow only parent cells to pass through the gradient.

The supernatant, which is enriched for minicells, is then separated fromthe pellet and is spun at a much higher rate (e.g., 11,000 g). Thispellets the minicells and any parent cells that did not pellet out inthe first spin. The pellet is then resuspended and layered on a sucrosegradient.

The band containing minicells is collected, pelleted by centrifugation,and loaded on another gradient. This procedure is repeated until theminicell preparation is essentially depleted of parent cells, or has aconcentration of parent cells that is low enough so as to not interferewith a chosen minicell application or activity. By way of non-limitingexample, buffers and media used in these gradient and resuspension stepsmay be LB, defined minimal media, e.g. M63 salts with defined carbon,nitrogen, phosphate, magnesium, and sulfate levels, complex minimalmedia, e.g. defined minimal media with casamino acid supplement, and/orother buffer or media that serves as an osmo-protectant, stabilizingagent, and/or energy source, or may contain agents that limit the growthof contaminating parental cells, e.g azide, antibiotic, or lack anauxotrophic supplemental requirement, e.g. thiamine.

Other physical methods may also be used to remove parent cells fromminicell preparations. By way of non-limiting example, mixtures ofparent cells and minicells are frozen to −20° C. and then thawed slowly(Frazer and Curtiss, Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 69:1-84, 1975).

Biochemical Separation of Minicells from Parent Cells

Contaminating parental cells may be eliminated from minicellpreparations by incubation in the presence of an agent, or under a setof conditions, that selectively kills dividing cells. Because minicellscan neither grow nor divide, they are resistant to such treatments.

Examples of biochemical conditions that prevent or kill dividingparental cells is treatment with an antibacterial agent, such aspenicillin or derivatives of penicillin. Penicillin has two potentialaffects. First, penicillin prevent cell wall formation and leads tolysis of dividing cells. Second, prior to lysis dividing cells formfilaments that may assist in the physical separation steps describedabove. In addition to penicillin and its derivatives, other agents maybe used to prevent division of parental cells. Such agents may includeazide. Azide is a reversible inhibitor of electron transport, and thusprevents cell division. As another example, D-cycloserine or phage MS2lysis protein may also serve as a biochemical approach to eliminate orinhibit dividing parental cells. (Markiewicz et al., FEMS Microbiol.Lett. 70:119-123, 1992). Khachatourians (U.S. Pat. No. 4,311,797) statesthat it may be desirable to incubate minicell/parent cell mixtures inbrain heart infusion broth at 36° C. to 38° C. prior to the addition ofpenicillin G and further incubations.

Genetic Separation of Minicells from Parent Cells

Alternatively or additionally, various techniques may be used toselectively kill, preferably lyse, parent cells. For example, althoughminicells can internally retain M13 phage in the plasmid stage of theM13 life cycle, they are refractory to infection and lysis by M13 phage(Staudenbauer et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 138:203-212, 1975). In contrast,parent cells are infected and lysed by M13 and are thus are selectivelyremoved from a mixture comprising parent cells and minicells. A mixturecomprising parent cells and minicells is treated with M13 phage at anM.O.I.=5 (phage cells). The infection is allowed to continue to a pointwhere ≥50% of the parent cells are lysed, preferably ≥75%, morepreferably ≥95% most preferably ≥99%; and ≤25% of the minicells arelysed or killed, preferably ≤15%, most preferably ≤1%.

As another non-limiting example of a method by which parent cells can beselectively killed, and preferably lysed, a chromosome of a parent cellmay include a conditionally lethal gene. The induction of thechromosomal lethal gene will result in the destruction of parent cells,but will not affect minicells as they lack the chromosome harboring theconditionally lethal gene. As one example, a parent cell may contain achromosomal integrated bacteriophage comprising a conditionally lethalgene. One example of such a bacteriophage is an integrated lambda phagethat has a temperature sensitive repressor gene (e.g., lambda cI857).Induction of this phage, which results in the destruction of the parentcells but not of the achromosomal minicells, is achieved by simplyraising the temperature of the growth media. A preferred bacteriophageto be used in this method is one that kills and/or lyses the parentcells but does not produce infective particles. One non-limiting exampleof this type of phage is one that lyses a cell but which has beenengineered to as to not produce capsid proteins that are surround andprotect phage DNA in infective particles. That is, capsid proteins arerequired for the production of infective particles.

As another non-limiting example of a method by which parent cells can beselectively killed or lysed, toxic proteins may be expressed that leadto parental cell lysis. By way of non-limiting example, these inducibleconstructs may employ a system to control the expression of a phageholing gene. Holin genes fall with in at least 35 different familieswith no detectable orthologous relationships (Grundling, A., et al.2001. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 98:9348-9352) of which each and any may beused to lyse parental cells to improve the purity of minicellpreparations.

In some embodiments, minicells are substantially separated from theminicell-producing parent cells in a composition comprising minicells.After separation, the compositions comprising the minicells is at leastabout 99.9%, about 99.8%, about 99.7%, about 99.6%, about 99.5%, about99.4%, about 99.3%, about 99.2%, about 99.1%, about 99%, about 98%,about 97%, about 96%, about 95%, about 94%, about 93%, about 92%, about91%, about 90%, about 89%, about 88%, about 87%, about 86%, about 85%,about 84%, about 83%, about 82%, about 81%, about 80%, about 79%, about78%, about 77%, about 76%, about 75%, about 74%, about 73%, about 72%,about 71%, about 70%, about 65%, about 60%, about 55%, about 50%, about45%, about 40%, about 35%, about 30%, about 25% or about 20% free ofminicell-producing parent cells. Thus, the compositions of thedisclosure can comprise minicells that are substantially free of theparental cell.

In some aspects, the present invention provides a method for makingminicells, the method comprising (a) culturing a minicell-producingparent cell, wherein the parent cell comprises an recombinant construct,wherein the recombinant construct comprises a nucleotide sequencehomologous to a target gene associated with regulating cell division,and (b) separating the minicells from the parent cell, therebygenerating a composition comprising minicells. In some embodiments, themethod further comprises (c) purifying the minicells from thecomposition by centrifugation and/or filtration. In some embodiments,one or more additional expression constructs can be introduced into theminicell-producing parent cell which comprise genes associated with celldivision. In such instances, the expression constructs may besimultaneously or sequentially introduced into the parent cell prior toinduction for minicell formation, and can comprise one or more selectionmarkers (e.g., antibiotic resistance genes) and/or reporter genes toallow for selection and/or visualization of minicells expressing theprotein(s) of interest. In other embodiments, the expression constructcan express one or more additional proteins, which are driven by thesame or different promoters, including inducible promoters. In furtherembodiments, genes associated with cell division are minC, minD, and/orboth minC and minD.

Eubacterial cells and minicells are bounded by an inner membrane, whichis surrounded by a cell wall, wherein the cell wall is itself enclosedwithin an outer membrane. That is, proceeding from the externalenvironment to the cytoplasm of a minicell, a molecule first encountersthe outer membrane (OM), then the cell wall and finally, the innermembrane (IM).

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches disruption ordegradation of the OM, cell wall or IM of a eubacterial minicell. Suchtreatments are used, by way of non-limiting example, in order toincrease or decrease the immunogenicity, and/or to alter thepermeability characteristics, of a minicell.

In some embodiments, minicells are (i) fully intact, (ii) protoplasts(outer membrane and cell wall removed) or, (iii) poroplasts (outermembrane removed or permeabilized) in which surface-expressing moietiessuch as membrane-associated protein, transmembrane protein/domain, andlinker protein/domain are found. In some embodiments, thesurface-expressing moieties can be fused to enzymatically activepolypeptides including, but are not limited to lipases, phospholipases,transacylases, transaminases, pectinase, proteases, amylases,cellulases, cutinases, esterases, acylases, invertases, isomerases,lyases, glucosidases, oxidoreductases, transferases, ligases, andamidases, displayed on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleatecells. In other embodiments, enzymatically active polypeptides compriselipase, glucose isomerase, alpha amylase, cellulase (endoglucanases,exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases), beta amylase, pectin lyase,isomerase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase,lipoxygenase, catalase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease,dehydrogenases (e.g. alcohol dehydrogenases, lactate dehydrogenases,acetaldehyde dehydrogenases, aldehyde dehydrogenases, pyruvatedehydrogenases, and succinate dehydrogenases), xylanase, phytase,mannanase, and laccase. Also, enzymatically active polypeptides furthercomprise amyloglucosidase, pullulanase,cyclodextrin-glycosyltransferase, pectin methyl esterase, glucoseoxidase, lactase, beta-glucanase, acetolactate decarboxylase, pectatelyase, nitrilase, and amyloglucosidase. In some embodiments, theenzymatically active polypeptide is lipase. In some embodiments, theenzymatically active polypeptide is glucose isomerase.

Eubacterial cells and minicells with altered membranes and/or cell wallsare called “poroplasts” “spheroplasts,” and “protoplasts.” Herein, theterms “spheroplast” and “protoplast” refer to spheroplasts andprotoplasts prepared from minicells. In contrast, “cellularspheroplasts” and “cellular protoplasts” refer to spheroplasts andprotoplasts prepared from cells. Also, as used herein, the term“minicell” encompasses not only minicells per se but also encompassesporoplast, spheroplasts and protoplasts.

In a poroplast, the eubacterial outer membrane (OM) and LPS have beenremoved. In a spheroplast, portions of a disrupted eubacterial OM and/ordisrupted cell wall either may remain associated with the inner membraneof the minicell, but the membrane and cell wall is nonetheless porousbecause the permeability of the disrupted OM and cell wall has beenincreased. A membrane is said to be “disrupted” when the membrane'sstructure has been treated with an agent, or incubated under conditions,that leads to the partial degradation of the membrane, therebyincreasing the permeability thereof. In contrast, a membrane that hasbeen “degraded” is essentially, for the applicable intents and purposes,removed. In preferred embodiments, irrespective of the condition of theOM and cell wall, the eubacterial inner membrane is not disrupted, andmembrane proteins displayed on the inner membrane are accessible tocompounds that are brought into contact with the minicell, poroplast,spheroplast, protoplast or cellular poroplast, as the case may be.

Enzyme Immobilization

A variety of enzyme immobilization techniques have been developed toimprove the efficiency of enzymes. The process of immobilizing enzymesbegan in 1916 with the invertase being immobilized on aluminum hydroxide(Fersht A. Structure and mechanism in protein science: a guide to enzymecatalysis and protein folding. New York: W. H. Freeman & Company; 1998.p. 615; Powers R. Struct Funct Bioinf. 2006; 65:124-35.) Since then,enzyme immobilization techniques have been advanced in many ways. Enzymeimmobilization adds various valuable properties to enzymes. It improvesthe stability, reusability, storage time, recovery, and range ofactivities in the presence of various physical and chemical factors.

In the early phase of enzyme immobilization, invertases was reversiblyimmobilized on aluminum hydroxide through a physical adsorption method.This laid the groundwork for enzyme immobilization (Nelson J M et al.,Hitchcock D I. 1921, J Am Chem Soc. 43:1956-61). From 1940 to 1965, thephysical adsorption method was transitioned to adsorption based on ionicadsorption to various organic, synthetic, and inorganic materials. Therewere also many unsuccessful attempts at immobilizing enzymes throughcovalent methods at this time (Mclaren A D. 1957, Science. 125:697. By1970, the covalent method of immobilizing enzymes had been successfullycompleted with various chemical cross-linkers and acrylamide polymers(Mosbach K et al. 1966, Acta Chem Scand. 20:2807-10) By 1980, the basisfor enzyme immobilization methods in covalent bonding, adsorption,entrapment, and encapsulation had been developed. Affinity binding andcoordination binding on novel matrices arose in this decade. This wasalso the decade where a multi-enzyme system was immobilized rather thana single enzyme (Chen L F et al. 1974 Pharmacol Res Commun. 6:273-80;Kennedy J F et al. 1975, Carbohydr Res. 41:227-33; Cordonnier M et al.1975, FEBS Lett. 59:263-7; Sin M L et al. 2014 Expert Rev Mol Diagn.14:225-44; Horton H R et al. 1976, Methods Enzymol. 44:516-26). Duringthis time, designing immobilized enzymes with very high selectivity andspecificity were tried to replace most chemical-based processes.Discoveries in the structure and specificity of immobilized enzymes ledto breakthroughs in various industries including pharmaceuticals,agriculture, and industry.

From the 1990s to present day, research has been heavily focused ondeveloping advanced immobilization techniques. The goal has been tocreate immobilized enzymes that have similar catalytic ability to thatof soluble enzymes but with higher operational stability. Cross-linkedenzyme crystals and cross-linked enzyme aggregates have showed thatenzyme immobilization is possible in the absence of a carrier. Thedevelopment of nano-structured materials and the use of computermodeling have significantly improved the processes involved with enzymeimmobilization. Currently, there are two overarching methods involved inimmobilizing enzymes: physical methods and chemical methods. Physicalmethods include: entrapment, adsorption, and microencapsulation.Chemical methods include covalent attachment, cross-linking, ionicbinding, and conjugation by affinity ligands.

Entrapment involves the cross linking of enzymes to a polymer, allowingthe permeation of substrates and release of product molecules (Das N etal. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. 1998; 27:25-9; Nakarani M et al. OrientPharm Exp Med. 2007; 7:79-84.) Adsorption involves attaching enzymes tosupport materials through ionic or hydrophobic interactions, hydrogenbonding, and van der Waals forces (Alloue W A et al. 2008 Appl BiochemBiotechnol. 150:51-63. Hage D S et al. 1986 Anal Chem. 58:274-9; MarquezL D S et al. 2008 J Mol Catal B: Enzym. 51:86-92). Microencapsulationinvolves enclosing enzymes within spherical, semi-permeable polymermembranes with controlled porosity (Iso M et al. 1989, J Microencapsul.6:165-76; Iso M et al. 1985, J Microencapsul. 2:275-87; Mauguet M C etal. 2002, J Microencapsul. 19:377-384).

Covalent attachment involves attaching enzymes by means of covalentbonds, including diazotization, amino bond, Schiff's base formation,amidation reactions, thiol-disulfide, peptide bond and alkylationreactions (Kayastha A M et al. 2003, J Bioact Compat Polym. 18;113-124), Cross-linking involves covalently bonding multiple enzymestogether to then bond to a matrix (Dwevedi A et al. 2009, BioresourTechnol. 100:2667-75). Ionic binding involves immobilizing enzymes to acharged matrix through a method similar to physical adsorption (KayasthaA M et al. 2001, 96:41-53). Conjugation by affinity ligands involvesattaching an enzyme to a matrix using specific ligands, such asartificially adding a histidine tag or utilizing the existing ligands onthe unmodified enzyme (DeLouise L A et al. 2005 Anal Chem. 77:1950-1956;Reddy K R C et al. 2005, Anal Chem. 77:5063-7).

The present disclosure teaches enzyme immobilization by covalentattachment via self assembly, rather than synthetic force. Self-assemblyis the process by which an organized structure spontaneously forms fromindividual components, as a result of specific, local interactions amongthe components. When the constitutive components are molecules, theprocess is termed molecular self-assembly as described in the followingwebpage (www.nature.com/subjects/self-assembly). In some embodiments, aself assembling enzyme immobilization process where the enzyme issecreted and attached to the outer membrane of the minicell in one stephas been developed for standardized enzyme purification and efficaciousenzyme delivery. Self-assembly is achieved through the means of targetedlinker proteins and signaling sequences. These linker proteins andsignaling sequences guide the expressed protein of interest to bind tothe surface of the cell, exposing the expressed protein of interest tothe exterior of the cell membrane.

Enzyme

In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide comprises afusion protein. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises atleast one surface-expressing moiety, and at least one enzyme moiety.

Enzymatically active polypeptides that are within the scope of thepresent disclosure include, but are not limited to, enzymes/enzymemoieties such as lipases, phospholipases, transacylases, transaminases,pectinase, proteases, amylases, cellulases, cutinases, esterases,acylases, invertases, isomerases, lyases, glucosidases, oxidoreductases,transferases, ligases, and amidases. In some embodiments, theenzymes/enzyme moieties comprise lipase, glucose isomerase, alphaamylase, cellulase (endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases),beta amylase, pectin lyase, isomerase, protease, transglutaminase,desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, alkaline phosphatase,tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenases (e.g. alcohol dehydrogenases, lactatedehydrogenases, acetaldehyde dehydrogenases, aldehyde dehydrogenases,pyruvate dehydrogenases, and succinate dehydrogenases), xylanase,phytase, mannanase, and laccase. Also, in other embodiments,enzymes/enzyme moieties further comprise amyloglucosidase, pullulanase,cyclodextrin-glycosyltransferase, pectin methyl esterase, glucoseoxidase, lactase, beta-glucanase, acetolactate decarboxylase, pectatelyase, nitrilase, and amyloglucosidase. In some embodiments, theenzymes/enzyme moieties is lipase. In some embodiments, theenzymes/enzyme moieties is glucose isomerase.

In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide displayed bythe minicells of the invention comprises a lipase. Exemplary lipase thatis within the scope of the disclosure include, but are not limited tosequences corresponding to Genbank Accession No. AY787835.2. In someembodiments, the enzyme/enzyme moieties described above is fused tosurface-expressing moiety. In other embodiments, the lipase is fused tosurface-expressing moiety.

In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide displayed bythe minicells of the invention comprises a glucose isomerase. Molecularand industrial aspects of glucose isomerase is reported by Bhosale S Het al 1996, Microbiological reviews, p 280-300, which is hereinincorporated by reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, theenzyme/enzyme moieties described above is fused to surface-expressingmoiety. In other embodiments, the glucose isomerase is fused tosurface-expressing moiety and is displayed on the surface of theminicells.

Binding Domain for Cell Adhesion

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell-based platform describedherewith express binding domains. These domains allow for betterretention of the minicells on plant surfaces, which prevents runoff ordrift of agrochemicals encapsulated within the minicells. They can alsoimprove adhesion to the targeted pests to ensure the administration ofan effective dose of the agrochemicals. Once the minicells are on theplant, the chemical will slowly release into the environment.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell described herewith expresses afusion protein, which comprises at least one surface expressing moietyand at least one plant cell adhesion moiety. The plant cell adhesionmoiety comprises a carbohydrate binding module comprising a carbohydratebinding module selected from the group consisting of: a cellulosebinding domain, a xylan binding domain, a chitin binding domain, and alignin binding domain.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a polypeptide on itssurface that increases adhesion to a plant surface. The polypeptide is aplant adhesion polypeptide on its surface. In some embodiments, thepolypeptide is a carbohydrate binding module that is displayed on itssurface. In other embodiments, the polypeptide is a carbohydrate bindingmodule that is displayed on its surface.

A carbohydrate-binding module (CBM) is a protein domain found incarbohydrate-active enzymes (for example glycoside hydrolases). Themajority of these domains have carbohydrate-binding activity. Some ofthese domains are found on cellulosomal scaffoldin proteins. CBMs arealso known as cellulose-binding domains. CBMs are classified intonumerous families, based on amino acid sequence similarity. CBMs ofmicrobial glycoside hydrolases play a central role in the recycling ofphotosynthetically fixed carbon through their binding to specific plantstructural polysaccharides. CBMs can recognize both crystalline andamorphous cellulose forms. CBMs are the most common non-catalyticmodules associated with enzymes active in plant cell-wall hydrolysis.Many putative CBMs have been identified by amino acid sequencealignments but only a few representatives have been shown experimentallyto have a carbohydrate-binding function. By binding to polysaccharides,CBMs bring appended catalytic domains into intimate contact with targetsubstrates and thus potentiate catalysis. CBMs with the capacity to bindcellulose are associated with enzymes that hydrolyze both cellulose andother cell wall polymers such as xylan, mannan, pectin, andnoncellulosic β-glucans.

Cellulose binding domains (CBDs) have been described as useful agentsfor attachment of molecular species to cellulose (U.S. Pat. Nos.5,738,984 and 6,124,117). Indeed, as cotton is made up of 90% cellulose,CBDs have proved useful for delivery of so called “benefit agents” ontocotton fabrics, as is disclosed in WO9800500 where direct fusionsbetween a CBD and an enzyme were used utilizing the affinity of the CBDto bind to cotton fabric. The use of similar multifunctional fusionproteins for delivery of encapsulated benefit agents was claimed inWO03031477, wherein the multifunctional fusion proteins consist of afirst binding domain which is a cellulose binding domain and a secondbinding domain, wherein either the first binding domain or the secondbinding domain can bind to a microparticle. WO03031477 is exemplifiedusing a bifunctional fusion protein consisting of a CBD and an anti-RR6antibody fragment binding to a microparticle, which complex is depositedonto cotton treads or cut grass.

In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide displayed bythe minicells of the invention comprises a CBM. Exemplary CBM fromCellulomonas fimi that is within the scope of the disclosure is used. Insome embodiments, the cell adhesion moiety is fused tosurface-expressing moiety. In other embodiments, the CBM is fused tosurface-expressing moiety and is displayed on the surface of theminicells.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides the geneticengineering techniques to make minicell-based platform with bindingdomains/motifs that functionalize the surface of the minicell. Proteinsincluding specific binding domains and/or motifs are expressed on thesurface of the minicells and specifically target binding sites that arepresent on the surface of plants or pests.

In some embodiments, minicell-based platform can be functionalized byproteins with carbohydrate binding modules (CBMs) that can target andbind to carbohydrates such as cellulose, xylan, chitin, and lignin,which are important and ubiquitous structural components of plant cellwalls. Because CBMs can recognize their binding site present on asubject such as a plant or a pest, the minicell-based platformcomprising the functionalized binding domain allows for targeting withhigh specificity.

Surface Expression System

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches surface-expressingmoiety that is fused to enzyme moiety. The surface-expressing moiety canbe transmembrane protein and/or transmembrane domains that function as alinker protein to display the enzymatically active polypeptides havingenzyme moiety on the surface of cells.

In some embodiments, surface-expressing moiety can bemembrane-associated proteins including, but not limited to,transmembrane protein, membrane-anchoring protein, linker protein and/ordomain thereof.

In some embodiments, the invention is drawn to display producedmembrane-associated protein(s) fused to proteins of interest disclosedherein on the surface of the minicell. By way of non-limiting example,this structure may be an internally expressed membrane protein orchimeric construct to be inserted in or associated with the minicellmembrane such that the extracellular domain or domain of interest isexposed on the outer surface of the minicell (expressed and displayed onthe surface of the minicell or expressed in the parental cell to bedisplayed on the surface of the segregated minicell).

The displayed domain fused to a membrane-associated linker protein maybe an enzymatic domain such as having lipases, phospholipases,transacylases, transaminases, pectinase, proteases, amylases,cellulases, cutinases, esterases, acylases, invertases, isomerases,lyases, glucosidases, oxidoreductases, transferases, ligases, andamidases activity. In other embodiments, the displayed domain fused to amembrane-associated linker protein may be an enzymatic domain such ashaving lipase, glucose isomerase, alpha amylase, cellulase(endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases), beta amylase, pectinlyase, isomerase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase,lipoxygenase, catalase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease,dehydrogenases (e.g. alcohol dehydrogenases, lactate dehydrogenases,acetaldehyde dehydrogenases, aldehyde dehydrogenases, pyruvatedehydrogenases, and succinate dehydrogenases), xylanase, phytase,mannanase, and laccase activity. In other embodiments, the displayeddomain fused to a membrane-associated linker protein may be an enzymaticdomain such as having amyloglucosidase, pullulanase,cyclodextrin-glycosyltransferase, pectin methyl esterase, glucoseoxidase, lactase, beta-glucanase, acetolactate decarboxylase, pectatelyase, nitrilase, and amyloglucosidase activity. In some embodiments,the displayed domain fused to a membrane-associated linker protein maybe an enzymatic domain such as having lipase activity. In someembodiments, the displayed domain fused to a membrane-associated linkerprotein may be an enzymatic domain such as having glucose isomeraseactivity.

Contacting such minicells with the appropriate substrate of the enzymeallows the substrate to be converted to reactant. When either thesubstrate or reactant is detectable, the reaction catalyzed by themembrane-bound enzyme may be quantified. In the latter instance, theminicells may be used to identify and isolate, from a pool of compounds,one or more compounds that inhibit or stimulate the activity of theenzyme represented by the displayed enzymatic moiety.

In some embodiments, the membrane-associated protein can be a fusionprotein, i.e., a protein that comprises a first polypeptide having afirst amino acid sequence and a second polypeptide having a second aminoacid sequence, wherein the first and second amino acid sequences are notnaturally present in the same polypeptide. At least one polypeptide in amembrane fusion protein is a “transmembrane protein/domain”“membrane-anchoring protein/domain” or “linker protein/domain”. Thetransmembrane and membrane-anchoring domains of a fusion protein may beselected from membrane proteins that naturally occur in a prokaryotesuch as bacteria, a eukaryote, such as a fungus, a unicellulareukaryote, a plant and an animal, such as a mammal including a human.Such domains may be from a viral membrane protein naturally found in avirus such as a bacteriophage or a eukaryotic virus, e.g., an adenovirusor a retrovirus. Such domains may be from a membrane protein naturallyfound in an archaebacterium such as a thermophile.

Exemplary surface-expressing moieties include but are not limited to icenucleation protein (INP) Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein(BRK), Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence protein (AIDA) and/or anexported bacterial protein. “Exported bacterial proteins,” generallyrefers to bacterial proteins that are transported across the plasmamembrane and function as an anchor for membrane proteins. Exemplaryexported bacterial proteins encompassed by the present invention,include, but are not limited to LamB (GenBank Accession No. AMC96895),OprF (GenBank Accession No. NP_792118), OmpA (GenBank Accession No.AIZ93785), Lpp (GenBank Accession No. P69776), MalE (GenBank AccessionNo. POAEX9), PhoA (GenBank Accession No. AIZ92470.1), Bla (GenBankAccession No. P62593), F1 or M13 major coat (J7I0P6—Uniprot No.), and F1or M13 minor coat (P69168—Uniprot No.).

In some embodiments, for gram negative bacterial expression systems,enzymes of interest disclosed herein are immobilized to the surface ofthe minicells via wild type or mutant versions of the exported bacterialproteins such as LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outermembrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein),MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), F1 or M13minor coat (Gene III).

In other embodiments, a wild type and/or truncated version of the IceNucleation Protein (INP) can be used to immobilize enzymes on thesurface of bacteria.

Surface Display System

Bacterial surface display technique enables the exogenous proteins orpolypeptides displayed on the bacterial surface, while maintaining theirrelatively independent spatial structures and biological activities. Thetechnique makes recombinant bacteria possess the expectant functions,subsequently, directly used for many applications. Many proteins couldbe used to achieve bacterial surface display, among them,autotransporter, a member of the type V secretion system ofgram-negative bacteria, has been extensively studied because of itsmodular structure and apparent simplicity. However, autotransporter hasnot been widely used at present due to lack of a convenient geneticvector system.

The present disclosure teaches that autodisplay of anprotein/polypeptide of interest requires an autotransporter protein inorder to surface display a protein or peptide in a gram negativebacteria. The autotransporter proteins are broken down into 3 differentsubgroups, classical autotransporters (type Va), trimericautotransporters adhesins (type Vb), and two partner secretion systems(type Vc).

Classic autotransporters (type Va) are thought to all share a commongeneral structure which consists of a N-terminus signal peptide fused tothe passenger protein that takes place of autotransport precursorprotein, which provides transport across the cytoplasmic membrane. TheN-terminus signal peptide normally utilizes the Secretion machinery inorder to provide transport. This signal peptide is cleaved once theprotein crosses the inner membrane. Outer membrane translocation isfacilitated by the C-terminal domain of the autotransporter. Thisdomain, known as the translocator domain, forms a (3-barrel within theouter membrane. This autotransporter requires an additional linkerdomain due to the β-strand that closes barrel is directed towards theperiplasm. Over 30 different proteins have been expressed as thepassenger protein using this mechanism.

The trimeric autotransporters (type Vb) are similar to the classicalautotransporters except that they cannot transport just one protein tothe surface, they transport 3 (trimeric) proteins to the surface.

Type Vc autotransporters consist of a passenger and translocationdomain, however both domains are expressed in separate genes. Bothdomains are transported across the inner membrane by the Secretionmachinery, but interact with the periplasm via the polypeptide transportassociated domain (POTRA). Due to the similarities between thismechanism of transport and the systems of transport that exist inchloroplasts and mitochondria, this system is expected to be able totransport extremely complex protein structures, but Vb or Vc systems ofautotransport have been rarely used.

Enzymes are immobilized to the surface of the minicell by means ofprotein mediated membrane localization mechanisms including, but are notlimited to the following linking proteins and mechanisms. In someembodiments, these systems include the BrkA protein, and AIDA-1 protein.The comparison of autotransporter and Ice Nucleation Protein as carrierproteins for protein display on the cell surface of E. coli is reportedby Yang et al. 2013, Progress in Biochemistry and Biophysics40(12):1209-1219, which is herein incorporated by reference in itsentirety.

AIDA-I Autotransporter System

One of the most widely studied autotransporter is AIDA-1 which naturallyoccurs in E. coli. It was originally discovered in a pathogenic strainof E. coli but was subsequently transferred to laboratory E. colistrains using both the pAIDA-1 plasmid and the pDT1 plasmids.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides the pAIDA-1expression vector in which a polynucleotide sequence encoding a proteinof interest including lipase. For example, the recombinant pAIDA-1expression vector with lipase-encoding gene is illustrated in FIGS. 4Aand 4B. The AIDA-I autotransport system consists of an N-terminus 5 kDasignaling peptide, a 5 kDa linker region, and a 47 kDA C-terminustranslocation unit. The passenger domain is located between thesignaling peptide and the linker domain. This autotransporter with noprotein in its passenger domain is a total of 63 kDa. The protein ofinterest is inserted into the passenger domain in order to enablesurface expression. This corresponds genetically to the signalingpeptide region of the protein being located between the NdeI and SalI,the passenger domain between KpnI and SacI, the linker region of thepeptide between the XbaI and NotI restriction sites, and the rest of theprotein corresponding to the C-terminus translocation unit.

The pAIDA-1-lipase expression vector contains the AIDA-I gene underinducible control with a lacUV5 promoter and includes 2 protein tags(6×His Tag and Myc Tag) and 2 protease cleavage sites (HRV3C and TEV) inorder to enable surface expression analysis. FIGS. 4A and 4B illustratesthe pAIDA-1 lipase expression vector. The TEV site is an amino acidsequence recognized by the tobacco etch virus. It is a well-known,highly specific protease. The HRV3C site is another highly specificprotease cleavage site located C-terminus to the 6×His tag. Both ofthese protease cleavage sites are used for protein tag removal foranalytical purposes if desired. The 6×His tag is located between theSalI and the KpnI site. This 6×his tag was used for immunofluorescentstaining with THE™ His Tag antibody [FITC] from Genscript® as well asused for Cobalt Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography forpurification of the protein for assay confirmation of presence. The TEVsite is N-terminus of the Myc tag and located between SacI and XbaIrestriction site within the AIDA-I gene located in the pAIDA-I plasmid.The Myc tag present on the plasmid can be used for immunofluorescentstaining, however this capability was not utilized.

Further components of the plasmid include a lac operator and a ladrepressor gene placed under control of the lad promoter. These threecomponents work in conjunction with the lacUV promoter in order toregulate expression of the AIDA-I gene. The pAIDA-1 plasmid maintainedin vivo by the p15a origin of replication which is a medium copy originof replication. This differs from a low copy or high copy origin ofreplication simply by the relative number of copies of the plasmidmaintained within the cell. The antibiotic resistance gene for thisplasmid is chloramphenicol (CmR) under control of its own promoter.

Brk Auto Display

The Brk has been recently discovered as autotransporter (autodisplay)protein. An autotransporter domain is a structural domain found in somebacterial outer membrane proteins. The domain is located at theC-terminal end of the protein and forms a beta-barrel structure. Thebarrel is oriented in the membrane such that the N-terminal portion ofthe protein, termed the passenger domain, is presented on the cellsurface. With recently characterized autotransporter BrkA (Bordetellaserum-resistance killing protein A) from Bordetella pertussis,BrkAutoDisplay system works better for surface display compared to othersystems such as using the Ice Nucleation Protein (INP). TheBrkAutoDisplay system for functional display of multiple exogenousproteins on the E. coli surface using BrkA autotransporter isexemplified by Sun et al. 2015, Microb. Cell Fact. 14:129, which isherein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

The BrkA protein (GenBank WP_010931506.1) is found as a 1010 amino acidchain length protein in its native form. The first 59 amino acidsrepresent the signal peptide and the Beta barrel is formed between aminoacids 693-1010. The Translocation domain corresponds to amino acids545-1010. The passenger domain corresponds to amino acids 60-544, whichis replaced with the proteins of interest such as lipase and/or glucoseisomerase. The first 59 amino acids and the Beta barrel region,693-1010, represent the minimal translocation domain.

The present disclosure teaches that a recombinant expressionvector/construct for expression a fusion protein possesses twopolynucleotide sequences encoding i) the first 228 amino acids (signalpeptide and 5′ partial passenger domain) and ii) the 694-1010 amino acid(Beta barrel domain) sequence of the BrkA protein. In this recombinantexpression vector, polynucleotide sequences encoding protein of interestsuch as lipase are inserted between these two segments (i) one for thesignal peptide and 5′ partial passenger domain, and ii) the other forthe Beta barrel domain) of the BrkA protein. Once the fusion protein istrafficked to the membrane, it is cleaved between the Asn731 and Ala732residues corresponding to location of the wild-type BrkA protein, uponwhich the protein of interest including lipase located between thesignal peptide and the B-barrel translocation domain, adopts its matureconformation and is displayed externally on the surface of the cells.The recombinant expression vector used herein is illustrated in FIGS. 6Aand 6B. The pGEX-6P-1 Brk-lipase expression vector contains the AIDA-Igene under control with a tac promoter and includes protein tags (6×HisTag and Myc Tag) and two protease cleavage sites (HRV3C and TEV) inorder to enable surface expression analysis. The uses of 6×His tag andMyc tag are well described above.

In further embodiments, the BrkAutodisplay system in the E coli Bstrains including, but are not limited to BL21, BL21(DE3), LPS-modifiedBL21(DE3), B8 and BL21-AI shows a greater aggregation towards the polarends of the cell membrane, resulting in a greater retention in theminicells because minicells bud off the polar ends from the parentcells. However, this phenomenon is not observed in the otherminicell-producing cell lines such as the wild type P678-54 strain. Thepresent disclosure teaches that the application of this autotransporterwith E coli B strain derivatives provides an advantage of greaterretention of the surface displayed protein/enzyme of interest in thefinal minicell product.

Vectors

In some embodiments, pUC-57 vector is used for knocking out a gene oftarget including minC, minD, and minC/D for including the production ofminicells from the protease-deficient strain. From the 5′ and 3′ ends ofthe gene of target, about 50 base pairs of nucleotide sequence(homologous arms) corresponding to the gene of target within the genomeare used for homologous recombination to knock out the gene of target.This directs the gene of interest to the place in the genome to replacethe gene of target that are aimed to be knocked out. Just inside of thehomologous arms, hairpin loops were inserted. These hairpin loops, whentranscribed to mRNA, do not allow for any translation of what iscontained between the loops in which the translation starts outside ofthe hairpin loops. These hairpin loops are formed upon translation ofDNA to RNA and are also known as stem loops. This allows for the insertto not interfere with the native promotion of the other genes in the minsystem. Due to the hairpin loops, the chloramphenicol cassette (CmR)that was contained within the insert was placed under control of its ownpromoter, the cat promoter. By including the hairpin loops, thispromoter would also not affect the regulation of any genes.

In some embodiments, the pET-9a plasmid can be used for expressing aprotein of interest when the protease-deficient strain in which theprotein of interest can be expressed has its own T7 RNA polymeraseactivity. The pEF-9a expression vector is illustrated in FIG. 8A. Thisplasmid is operated under the T7 promotion system which includes apromoter region upstream of the gene of interest. This promoter sequenceis essentially a recognition site of the T7 RNA polymerase located underinducible control within the genome of the cell line in which the vectoris transformed. Thus, production of the protein of interest iscontrolled by the promoter that controls the T7 rather than a promoterpresent on the plasmid. Because the plasmid is under control of the T7promoter, directly after the gene is a T7 terminator region. This is toensure that only the gene of interest is overexpressed. C-terminus tothe protein of interest is the T7 epitope tag which can be used forimmunofluorescent staining purposes. This plasmid is maintained in vivoby the pBR322 origin of replication which is normally a high copy originof replication. However, T7 promotion with a high copy origin ofreplication is undesirable (toxic levels of protein) so the rop gene wasalso included in order to keep the copy number low. This plasmidcontains a kanamycin resistance cassette (KanR) under control of its ownpromoter and thus is selected for with kanamycin.

In some embodiments, the pGEX-6P-1 plasmid can be used for expressing aprotein of interest when the protease-deficient strain in which theprotein of interest can be expressed does not have a T7 RNA polymeraseactivity. The pGEX-6P-1 expression vector is illustrated in FIG. 8B. ThepGEX-6P-1 is operated under the tac promotion system. The tac promotionsystem is a hybrid promotion system between the trp promoter and the lacpromoter. By hybridizing the promotion system, the binding/release ladprotein (inhibitor) is the mechanism of modulation of the promotionsystem, but it allows for tunable expression levels by varying theconcentration of the induction agent (normally IPTG). This lad gene andits promoter are included on the plasmid in order to mitigate any basallevel of gene expression thus enhancing the degree of expression controlresulting from the tac promoter.

This pGEX plasmid normally contains a glutathione S-transferase tag(GST) which enables for protein purification or immunochemicalapplications. However, given the purpose of the present disclosure, thestart codon (ATG) for the GST tag was removed from the pGEX-6P-1 plasmidin order to decrease the size of the overall protein of interest toensure adequate overexpression. This plasmid also contains an HRV3Ccleavage site for removal of the tag post purification.

This plasmid is maintained in vivo by the pBR322 origin of replicationwhich is a high copy origin of replication. Unlike the T7 promotionsystem, the level of protein accumulated using the tac promotion systemwith a high copy plasmid is not toxic due to the use of the native RNApolymerase for mRNA production. This pGEX plasmid contains an ampicillinresistance cassette (AmpR) under the control of its own promoter.

Enzyme Immobilization on Surface of Gram Positive Bacterial Derivatives

Enzymes are immobilized to the surface of the minicell by means ofprotein mediated membrane localization mechanisms including but notlimited to the following linking proteins and mechanisms: Sortaselinking mechanism. Sortase is one of autotransporters for enzymeimmobilization that specifically works in gram positive bacteria cellslike Bacillus Subtilis. This sortase is induced with D (+) xylose.Sortase is a transpeptidase that attaches surface proteins to the cellwall; it cleaves between the Gly and Thr of the LPXTG motif andcatalyzes the formation of an amide bond between the carboxyl-group ofthreonine and the amino-group of the cell-wall peptidoglycan. In someembodiments, the LPXTG motif can be inserted into the end of theC-terminus of the enzymatically active polypeptide of interest toexpress on the surface of gram positive bacterial cell. The Sortase canrecognize this motif and covalently bind the enzymatically activepolypeptide to the surface of the gram positive bacterial cell.

Likewise, minicells can be engineered from Extremophiles such that theyretain the resilient physical and chemical properties of the parentspecies. For instance minicells from thermophiles would retain theresistance to high temperatures. Fluorescent protein fusions, ATPsynthase mediated protein localization, Succinate dehydrogenase mediatedprotein localization. The focalization of membrane proteins and linkingmechanisms in Gram-Positive Bacteria is reported by Mitra S D et al2016, Trends in Microbiology, 24 (8):611-621, which is hereinincorporated by reference in its entirety.

Enzyme Immobilization on the Surface of Yeast Derivatives

Enzymes can be immobilized to the surface of the yeast minicell viasurface display proteins. Minicells can be produced from yeast strains,including but not limited to Saccharomyes cervisiae, Pichia pastoris andSchizosaccharomyces pombe.

The crystal structures of mammalian membrane proteins derived fromrecombinant sources were solved from protein expressed in yeast cells:the Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA1a) from rabbit. This protein was overexpressed inSaccharomyces cerevisiae. Also, the rat voltage-dependent potassium ionchannel, Kv1.2 was produced in Pichia pastoris to understand itsstructure. Since then, several other host cells have been used foreukaryotic membrane protein production including Escherichia coli,baculovirus-infected insect cells and mammalian cell-lines. Whilst allhost systems have advantages and disadvantages, yeasts have remained aconsistently-popular choice in the eukaryotic membrane protein field. Asmicrobes, they are quick, easy and cheap to culture; as eukaryotes theyare able to post-translationally process eukaryotic membrane proteins.Very recent crystal structures of recombinant transmembrane proteinsproduced in yeast include those of human aquaporin 2, chickenbestrophin-1, the human TRAAK channel, human leukotriene C4 synthase, analgal P-glycoprotein homologue and mouse P-glycoprotein using P.pastoris-derived samples; the structures of the Arabidopsis thalianaNRT1.1 nitrate transporter, a fungal plant pathogen TMEM16 lipidscramblase and the yeast mitochondrial ADP/ATP carrier were solved usingrecombinant protein produced in S. cerevisiae. Due to its features as aneukaryotic cells, yeast cells can be used for the purpose ofenzyme-immobilized minicell production.

The yeast membrane differs in composition from that of mammalianmembranes. This is relevant to subsequent structural and functionalstudies of recombinant membrane proteins produced in yeast becauselipids have a particularly important role in the normal function ofmembrane proteins by contributing to membrane fluidity and may directlyinteract with membrane proteins.

In an attempt to “humanize” the yeast membrane, yeast strains have beendeveloped that synthesize cholesterol rather than the native yeaststerol, ergosterol. This was achieved by replacing the ERGS and ERG6genes of the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway with the mammalian genesDHRC24 and DHRC7 and, respectively. The gene products of DHRC7 andDHRC24 were identified as key enzymes that saturate sterol intermediatesat positions C7 and C24 in cholesterol (but not ergosterol) synthesis.Erg5p introduces a double bond at position C22 and Erg6p adds a methylgroup at position C24 in the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway andtherefore competes with the gene product of DHRC24 for its substrate.

In addition to the open reading frame (ORF) of the gene of interest, atypical expression plasmid usually incorporate a number of othersequences in its expression cassette. The S. cerevisiae α-mating factorsignal sequence is a common addition to commercial expression plasmidsbecause it is believed to correctly-target recombinant membrane proteinsto the yeast membrane. For example, its presence had a positive impacton the yield of the mouse 5-HT_(5A) serotonin receptor but dramaticallyreduced expression of the histamine Hi receptor. Alternative signalsequences have been used (albeit much less frequently) such as the STE2leader sequence of the fungal GPCR, Ste2p. The known signal sequences inyeast can be another advantage for trafficking a protein of interestfused to membrane-associated protein/domain and immobilizing the proteinof interest on the surface of yeast cell.

Uses of Enzyme Immobilization Platform

When using enzyme-immobilized minicells can be used as a platform forimproving enzyme activity and stability, when harsh conditions arerequired for desired enzymatic reactions than normal conditions, and/orwhen high cycles with prolonged reaction time are required from theenzyme.

In some embodiments, the minicell-based enzyme immobilization platformis used to purify enzymes that are not easily purified. For example, ifan enzyme of interest is difficult to be extracted and purified from thelysed cells, the enzyme can be immobilized to the minicell and theminicell can be purified, instead of the enzyme.

In other embodiments, the minicell-based enzyme immobilization platformcan be used as an immobilization chassis. Minicells purified from theparental cells can be used for post fermentation incubation with anyenzyme of choice. For the post fermentation incubation, two independentfermentations are required; i) the minicell fermentation and 2) theenzyme fermentation. After the minicell and the enzyme are isolated,respectively, the minicells can be incubated with the enzyme that iseither purified or non-purified so that the enzyme may bind to thesurface of the minicell. In one process, the minicells is fermented tohave surface-expressing moiety X. In the other process, the enzyme isfermented to have a binding moiety complementary to moiety X. Afterseparating minicells that express moiety X on the surface, they can beincubated with an enzyme solution, where the enzyme has a complementarymoiety that recognizes and binds to moiety X. From this postfermentation incubation, the enzyme of choice can be captured by theminicells and surface displayed.

In other embodiments, the present disclosure teaches co-localization ofsurface immobilized enzymes that described herein. More than one enzymeare expressed on the anucleated cell, and work symbiotically for anintended outcome. One enzyme can bind to a substrate for its ownenzymatic activity while another enzyme function with another substratefor its own enzymatic activity. This can be exemplified by how acellulosome would work, when three cellulases work togethersynergistically to break down cellulose. For example, lipase can be usedin conjunction with protease in biological detergents in order to breakdown and digest the substances in stains into smaller and more watersoluble substances when both lipase and protease are surface-expressedand immobilized to minicells.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell comprises at least twoexpressed self-assembled enzymes immobilized to the surface of saidcell. In other embodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembledenzymes are co-localized to a desired locus, wherein each of theexpressed self-assembled enzymes have its enzymatic activity at thedesired locus. In some embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzymesare lipase and protease. In other embodiments, the expressedself-assembled enzymes are glucose isomerase and protease. In furtherembodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes have acomplimentary function. In some embodiments, the at least two expressedself-assembled enzymes act synergistically. In some embodiments, atleast two expressed self-assembled enzymes each work to carry out aportion of an overall enzymatic reaction.

Enzyme-Immobilized Minicell Applications

The present disclosure is directed to uses and/or application ofenzyme-immobilized minicells disclosed herein. There are variouspotential commercial applications for immobilized enzymes. The uniquefeatures of enzymes immobilized on minicells can make the production ofindustrial enzymes cheaper and more efficient, while making the enzymesmore efficacious, easier to recycle, and increasing their active lifecycles. Immobilizing enzymes can also open doors to various marketsoutside the enzyme industry. These applications can include preventingfrost on crops and infrastructure (roads, airplanes, etc.), heavy metaland antibiotic remediation in bodies of water, the removal anddegradation of chemical agents, nitrogen fixation, and antimicrobialmedicines.

The present disclosure teaches compositions and methods for theimmobilization of enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/oranucleate cells, including but are not limited to anucleate cellsderived from eubacteria, archaebacteria, and yeast, in applications suchas agriculture, animal feed, food, beverages, industrial enzymes,textiles, pulp and paper, biofuels, fermentation, bioremediation,bioenergy, electronics, defense, bioenergy, household care,pharmaceuticals, and others uses.

In some embodiments, the development of enzyme-immobilized minicellsallowed the introduction of enzymes into true industrial products andprocesses, for example, within the detergent (including laundry and dishwash) industries, starch and fuel industries, food including dairyindustries, baking industries, animal feed industries, beverageindustries, textile industries, pulp and paper industries, fats and oilsindustries, organic synthesis industries, leather industries, and/orpersonal care industries. In some embodiments, enzymes expressed on thesurface of minicells disclosed herein can have applications in variousindustrial segments as illustrated in Table 1. In some embodiments, thepresent disclosure teaches production, uses, and/or application oflipase-immobilized minicells. In some embodiments, the presentdisclosure teaches production, uses, and/or application of glucoseisomerase-immobilized minicells.

TABLE 1 Applications of exemplary enzymes in various industrial segmentsIndustry Enzyme class Application Detergent Protease Protein stainremoval (laundry and Amylase Starch stain removal dish wash) LipaseLipid stain removal Cellulase Cleaning, color clarification,anti-redeposition (cotton) Mannanase Mannanan stain removal (reappearingstains) Starch and fuel Amylase Starch liquefaction and saccharificationAmyloglucosidase Saccharification Pullulanase Saccharification Glucoseisomerase Glucose to fructose conversionCyclodextrin-glycosyltransferase Cyclodextrin production XylanaseViscosity reduction (fuel and starch) Protease Protease (yeastnutrition - fuel) Food (including Protease Milk clotting, infantformulas (low allergenic), flavor dairy) Lipase Cheese flavor LactaseLactose removal (milk) Pectin methyl esterase Firming fruit-basedproducts Pectinase Fruit-based products Transglutaminase Modifyvisco-elastic properties Baking Amylase Bread softness and volume, flouradjustment Xylanase Dough conditioning Lipase Dough stability andconditioning (in situ emulsifier) Phospholipase Dough stability andconditioning (in situ emulsifier) Glucose oxidase Dough strengtheningLipoxygenase Dough strengthening, bread whitening Protease Biscuits,cookies Transglutaminase Laminated dough strengths Animal feed PhytasePhytate digestibility - phosphorus release Xylanase Digestibilitybeta-Glucanase Digestibility Beverage Pectinase De-pectinization,mashing Amylase Juice treatment, low calorie beer Beta-Glucanase MashingAcetolactate decarboxylase Maturation (beer) Laccase Clarification(juice), flavor (beer), cork stopper treatment Textile Cellulase Denimfinishing, cotton softening Amylase De-sizing Pectate lyase ScouringCatalase Bleach termination Laccase Bleaching Peroxidase Excess dyeremoval Pulp and paper Lipase Pitch control, contaminant control AmylaseBiofilm removal Xylanase Starch-coating, de-inking, drainage improvementCellulase Bleach boosting Protease De-inking, drainage improvement,fiber modification Fats and oils Lipase TransesterificationPhospholipase De-gumming, lyso-lecithin production Organic LipaseResolution of chiral alcohols and amides synthesis Acylase Synthesis ofsemisynthetic penicillin Nitrilase Synthesis of enantiopure carboxylicacids Leather Protease Unhearing, bating Lipase De-pickling Personalcare Amyloglucosidase Antimicrobial (combined with glucose oxidase)Glucose oxidase Bleaching, antimicrobial Peroxidase Antimicrobial

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches use of immobilizedlipase. Lipases are one of the most commonly used classes of enzymes inbiocatalysis. Lipases catalyze the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols todiacylglycerol, monoacylglycerol, glycerol and free fatty acids. Thereaction reverses under anhydrous conditions and the enzyme is able tosynthesize new molecules by esterification, alcoholysis andtransesterification. All reactions can be performed with high regio- andenantioselectivity under mild reaction conditions. Lipases have beenused on a variety of substrates and show very broad substratespecificity due to the ubiquity in nature and the heterogeneity oflipases from different sources. For example, Candida antarctica can be asource of industrially important lipases. Immobilized Candida antarcticalipase can be used to catalyze the regioselective acylation offlavonoids or the direct acetylation with phenolic acids. Lipase canfrom Candida antarctica (Lipase B). In the detergent industry,immobilized lipases are used for fatty acid and oily stain removal, Inthe fuel industry, immobilized lipases are used for biodieselproduction. Biodiesel is a fatty acid alkyl ester that can be derivedfrom any vegetable oil or animal fat via the process oftransesterification that can be catalyzed by lipase. In the foodindustry, immobilized lipases are used in dairy and baking. In thechemical industry, immobilized lipases are used for resolution of chiralalcohols and amines.

Production of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is the biggest industrialuse of immobilized enzymes. The enzyme glucose isomerase is immobilized,and this enzyme converts the glucose in the corn syrup to fructose,which makes it sweeter. HFCS is used as a sweetener in place of sucrose,especially in the USA where sugar prices are high. It is not widely usedin Europe, because sucrose is cheaper there and there are concerns aboutthe health risks of HCFS.

Immobilized lactase can be used to produce lactose-free milk: normalmilk is poured down a column containing the immobilized lactase enzymes,which break down the lactose. After the milk has passed through thisplatform, it will only contain the products of the reaction (glucose andgalactose), so lactose-intolerant people (and cats) can drink it.

Immobilized pectinase can be used to break down these pectins, looseningthe connections between cells. This increases the amount of juiceobtained from the fruit, makes the juice runnier and gets rid of thecloudiness that pectins can cause.

Immobilized Protease (also known as a proteolytic enzyme, peptidase orproteinase) can function mainly to help us digest different kinds ofproteins. Protease breaks down the bonds by a process known ashydrolysis and convert proteins into smaller chains called peptides oreven smaller units called amino acids.

Commercial Applications of Enzymes

Enzymes now have a large number of commercial applications. They carrymany advantages, with one important one being that enzymes are specificto only one catalytic reaction and so they therefore do not produce arange of unwanted by-products.

Enzymes are widely used in the textile industry. They are used forimproving production methods and for fabric finishing. In this industry,a very common application is the use of the enzyme amylase in order toremove starch size. The threads (the longitudinal threads) of thefabrics are often coated in starch. This prevents them from breaker whenweaving takes place. In the textile industry, a process called scouringis used (the cleaning of fabrics by removing any impurities such aswaxes, pectins and any mineral salts from cellulose fibers). Pectin canact as a glue between the core of the fibers and the waxes, but this canbe destroyed by an alkaline called pectinase. Cellulases have quiterecently become the tool for fabric finishing. This began in denimfinishing where it was discovered that cellulases could achieve thefashionable stonewashed look traditionally achieved through the abrasiveaction of pumice stones. Cellulases are also quite often used in orderto prevent pilling and improve the smoothness and color brightness ofcotton fabrics. In addition, a softer handle is obtained. Catalases canalso be used for degrading residual hydrogen peroxide after thebleaching of cotton. Hydrogen peroxide has to be removed before dyeing.Protease enzymes are used for wool treatment and the degumming of rawsilk. Examples of enzymes that may be used in the textile industry:Cellulase—for stonewashing denim, polishing of cotton; Catalase—removinghydrogen peroxide; Pectinase—for bioscouring (a way to scour fabrics);Alpha amylase—for desizing at low temperatures.

The food and drink industry has to be one of the largest markets forenzymes. In the baking industry, enzymes are added to the dough whenbaking bread to ensure that the bread is high in quality and has abetter volume (that there is more of it). Enzymes also have the abilityto preserve bread; keeping it fresh for a longer period of time andtherefore increasing its shelf life. In the dairy industry, enzymes areused in cheese making to help bring about the coagulation of milk. Inthese applications, enzymes from microbial and animal sources are used.Industrial enzymes are added to control the brewing process in alcoholmaking and the brewing industry. This also helps to produce consistentand high quality beer. When making wines and juices, enzymes are used tobreak down cell walls of plants when extracting plant material. This useof enzymes would give higher juice yields and also improves the colorand smell of the extracted substances. Examples of enzymes that may beused in the baking industry: Fungal alpha amylase—for dough improvementin the bread making industry; Glucoamylase—used in fermentation; Papainenzymes—for fermentation in the brewing industry; Beta glucanse—forfiltration; Protease—used in biscuit production.

Enzymes are also used in the pulp and paper industry. Amylase is usedfor modification of starch coating and xylanases to reduce theconsumption of bleach chemicals are known applications, but nowadayslipases for is used for pitch control, esterases is used for stickiesremoval and amylases and cellulases are used for improved deinking andcellulases for fiber modification have become an integral part of thechemical solutions used in the pulp and paper mills.′ In themanufacturing of coated papers, a starch-based coating formulation isused in order to coat the surface of the paper. Compared with theuncoated paper, the coating provides a number of benefits, including;improved gloss, a smoother texture, and printing properties. Examples ofenzymes that may be used in the pulp and paper industry: Cellulase—canbe used for pulp deinking and pulp refining; Xylanase—for pulpbleaching; Alpha amylase—starch modification.

Enzymes are used in detergents and in personal care and hygiene. Theyare used in many household and industrial detergents. This industry, inaddition to the food processing industry is currently one of the largestapplication areas for enzymes. This is because the enzymes are veryeffective at relatively low temperatures and pH values. They contributeto a: better overall cleaning performance; they are biodegradable sothey do not really effect the environment that much; they reduce waterconsumption through more effective release of soil.

Bioethanol is a type of biofuel. It may be used when adding fuel to avehicle. This biofuel is able to be produced from starchy plantmaterials with the use of enzymes that are capable of efficiently makingthis conversion. At the moment, corn is widely used as a source ofstarch, however increasing interest in bioethanol is raising concerns ascorn prices rise and corn as a food supply is being threatened. Otherplants including wheat, bamboo, or other grasses are possible candidatesources of starch for bioethanol production. Bioethanol production (thegrowing of crops, shipping and manufacturing) still requires a largeinput of non-renewable resources. Technological research andmanipulation of enzymes to make the process more efficient, thusrequiring less plant material or consuming less fossil fuels, are in theworks, to improve on this area of biotechnology.

Protease enzyme is used in the manufacturing of baby foods to predigestproteins.

Lipase can be used in conjunction with protease in biological detergentsin order to break down and digest the substances in stains into smallerand more water soluble substances.

Carbohydrase can be used to convert starch syrup into sugar syrup. Thisis done during the manufacturing of sports drinks; sugar syrup is muchmore valuable than starch syrup, which is relatively cheap. Isomerasecan be used in slimming foods/weight loss products. It converts theglucose syrup into fructose syrup (fructose is much sweeter than glucoseso it can be used in much smaller amounts, thus saving money during theproduction processes).

Zymase can be used in alcohol manufacturing. Fermentation is anothermethod used for manufacturing alcohol. During the fermentation process,carbohydrates are converted into ethanol (with carbon dioxide as abyproduct). The carbohydrate is usually a sugar or a starch. The ethanolthat is produced during the fermentation process may have an alcoholconcentration of up to 14%. The fermentation process is carried out atquite low temperatures using used. It is the zymase enzymes that arepresent in the yeast that actually catalyse the fermentation reactions.The reaction takes places at temperatures between 25° C. and 37° C. Thisis because zymase would begin to denature at temperatures above 37° C.and it would therefore begin to lose its function and efficiency,whereas at temperature bellow 25° C. the reaction would be too slow.Zymase also stops functioning at an alcohol concentration of above 14%.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are given for the purpose of illustrating variousembodiments of the disclosure and are not meant to limit the presentdisclosure in any fashion. Changes therein and other uses which areencompassed within the spirit of the disclosure, as defined by the scopeof the claims, will occur to those skilled in the art.

Example 1. Production of Protease-Deficient Minicells

In order to create protease-deficient minicells, the genes (minC andminD) that guide replication in a protease-deficient BL21 (DE3) E. colistrain were knocked out. Also, BL21-AI strain was used for producingprotease-deficient minicells. BL21-AI strain is the same as the BL21(DE3) strain, except for one major difference. While BL21-AI uses anarabinose promoter that controls the production of T7 RNA polymerase, alac promoter controls the production of T7 RNA polymerase in theBL21(DE3) strain. When comparing to the wild type minicell-producingp678-54 strain, BL21 and BL21-AI are deficient in Ion and ompTproteases, which make them protease-deficient bacterial strains.

The success of these knockouts was determined by PCR amplification(Eppendorf Mastercycler 5333) and morphological characterization usingthe Laxco LMC4000 microscope (40×Objective, brightfield and fluorescentLED light sources) in conjunction with the Zeiss Sigma VP HD field SEM(UVA Advanced Microscopy Core). Based on the results shown in FIGS. 17Aand 17B, it was determined that the minC, minD, and/or minC/D knockoutsproduced the minicells closest in morphological characteristics to theoriginal wild type P678-54 strain producing minicells (Adler et al.,1967, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 57:321-326; Inselburg J, 1970 J.Bacteriol. 102(3):642-647; Frazer 1975, Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol.69:1-10). As an example, FIG. 17B shows the minicells in which minC geneis deleted.

To further investigate which gene knockout was responsible for producingminicells closest to the minicell-producing wild type p678-54 strains,the Lambda Red homologous recombination system was used. This lambda redrecombinant-engineering system relies on three different proteins (Beta,Gam, and Exo) required for facilitating insertion of double strandedlinear DNA into the genome guided by homology to the already existinggenome, as exemplified by Murphy K C, 2011 Methods Mol. Biol. 765:27-42.All of these proteins are expressed via a plasmid with the pSC101 originof replication containing the RepA protein which only allows for plasmidreplication at 30° C. Thus, once the genetic manipulation is complete,the plasmid is removed from the cell line by growth at 37° C.

The genes that were inserted into the genome were designed to have 50base pairs of homology to both the 5′ and 3′ ends of a targeted gene tobe knocked out. The homology corresponded to 50 base pairs at the 5′(SEQ ID NO:1) and 3′ end (SEQ ID NO:2) of minC in order to knockoutminC, at the 5′ (SEQ ID NO:3) and 3′ end (SEQ ID NO:4) of minD in orderto knockout minD, or 5′ end (SEQ ID NO:3) of minD and 3′ end (SEQ IDNO:2) of minC in order to knockout minCD, respectively. Achloramphenicol cassette with its promoter flanked by two hairpin loopswas inserted in place of either minC, minD, or minC/D. The hairpin loopswere included in the insert in order to not interfere with theregulation of other genes in the same area of the genome, due to theirability to stop transcription.

These genes were inserted into a pUC57 backbone as shown in FIGS. 1-3 .This plasmid was used as a template to then amplify out the gene ofinterest to verify that the sequence information is accurate beforeintegrate them into the host genome. All amplifications were run across6 different annealing temperatures with the following components andconditions as shown in Tables 3 and 4. Table 2 displays that twodifferent sets of primers were designed per each gene knockoutamplification. All primers were synthesized by the service provider,Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT).

TABLE 2 Information on primer sets for testing min gene knockoutAmplification Name Sequence Designation F2 minCKO AACAACAATAATGCGTGCCATA R2 minCKO GCGCTGGCGATGATTAATAG A F9 minCKO AGTAACAACAATAATGCGTGCC BR9 minCKO CGCGCTGGCGATGATT B F7 minDKO TTCCGCGAGAGAAAGAAATCG C R7 minDKOGACCGTTCAACCGTTAAATTGAT C F10 minDKO CTGTGTTTTTCTTCCGCGAG D R10 minDKOTCAACCGTTAAATTGATCCCTTTTT D F6 minCDKO TCCGCGAGAGAAAGAAATCG E R6 minCDKOCGCGCTGGCGATGATTA E F9 minCDKO CTGTGTTTTTCTTCCGCGAG F R9 minCDKOCGCGCTGGCGATGATT F

TABLE 3 Components for PCR reaction Contents Component Volume (uL) FinalConcentration Nuclease Free Water 17.5 N/A Template DNA (5 ng/uL) 1   5ng 10 uM Forward Primer 2.5 500 nM 10 uM Reverse Primer 2.5 500 nM DMSO1.5 3% Phusion HF Master Mix 25 1X

TABLE 4 Conditions for PCR reaction Conditions 55 Cycles StepsTemperature (° C.) Time (seconds) Initial Denaturation 98 30 CycleDenaturation 98 10 Cycle Annealing 64, 4º Gradient 30 Cycle Extension 7230 Final Extension 72 600  Hold  4 N/A

Six series amplifications from A to F (Table 2) were run with each ofthe following annealing temperatures shown in Table 5. The numberfollowing the letter correspond to the position on the PCR plate with agap between each well because of the slight increase in temperature fromwell to well. (example: well number A2 was the A series amplificationrun with Tm 1; A4—A series amplification run with Tm 2; A6—A seriesamplification run with Tm 3; A8—A series amplification run with Tm 4;A10—A series amplification run with Tm 5; A12—A series amplification runwith Tm 6; and A1, A3, A5, A7, A9, and A11 are empty wells)

TABLE 5 Information on annealing temperatures for PCR reaction AnnealingTemperatures Tm Number Tm ° C. 1 59.8 2 60.8 3 62.8 4 65.1 5 66.9 6 67.6

All amplifications were cleaned up using the Monarch® PCR and DNACleanup kit according to their standard protocol. All DNA was elutedwith enough elution buffer in order to provide for adequate DNAquantification and quality determination. After cleanup, allamplifications were run on a gel against the 1 kB plus ladder fromInvitrogen® to determine success of the PCR reaction. All amplificationsrun at all annealing temperatures were successful by visualization of asingle band at about 1080 base pairs. All DNA visualization wasaccomplished using a 1% Agarose (w/v) gel prepared with 1×TAE and SYBRsafe stain in conjunction with the Invitrogen Safe Imager 2.0.

These bands were extracted from the gel using the disposable scalpelsand the Monarch® DNA gel extraction kit according to their standardprotocol. After extraction the DNA was quantified, its quality wasdetermined before sending off for sequencing from Eton Biosciences.Primers used for amplification (Table 2) were used for sequencingdetermination. All sequences came back with ˜99% identity, thus theywere deemed suitable for insertion into the genome.

The lambda red plasmid was transformed into a chemically competentprotease-deficient E. coli strain via the heat shock method (seeexamples; Rahimzadeh et al. 2016, Mol. Boil. Res. Commun. 5(4):257-261).It was plated on a selective LB Agar plate, and re-streaked thefollowing day in order to be sure that a single colony was isolated forlambda red recombination.

In order to introduce the PCR generated DNA into the genome, theTransformAid Bacterial Transformation Kit from Thermon Scientific™ wasused with a modified protocol.

A single colony was grown in C-medium at 30° C. overnight. Next day, a1:100 dilution of the cultured cells were inoculated into freshC-medium. This was grown at 30° C. until it reached an optical densityof about 0.2 (measured at 600 nm). This culture was induced with 1 mMIPTG for 20 minutes to allow for sufficient production and accumulationof the three proteins vital for this procedure (Beta, Gam, and Exo).After induction for every 1.5 mL of inoculated culture volume, the cellswere pelleted for 1 minute at 10,000 rcf and resuspended in 300 uL ofcold T-solution and incubated for 5 minutes. The cells were thenpelleted again and resuspended in 120 uL of cold T-solution for 5minutes. After the final incubation step, 50 uL of cells and 50 ng ofPCR amplification were combined for each transformation and incubated onice for 5 minutes. From here, 250 uL of SOC medium was added to eachtransformation and let grow for 90 minutes at 37° C. After the 90 minuteoutgrowth, all 300 uL of transformation was plated on Chloramphenicol LBAgar plates (10 ug/mL) and let the transformed cells grow overnight.

This protocol resulted in the successful transformation of almost all ofthe genes attempted (3 from each series). The morphology of thetransformed cells was examined from each successful transformant on theLaxco LMC4000 (40×objective, brightfield) and it was determined that theminC knockouts (A and B) produced the most morphologically similarminicells to the control p678-54 strain from which minicells werediscovered. These BL21 and BL21-AI strains were two strains that wereused for protease-deficient minicells and analyzed genetically.

In order to confirm presence of the knockouts in the genome, primerswere designed to amplify out specific parts of the knockouts of minCand/or minD. The 5′ and 3′ end of the insert was confirmed by having theprimers span regions both inside and outside of the insert. The primersin Table 6 were used according to the following conditions in Tables7-9.

TABLE 6 Information on primer sets for testing min gene knockout NameAnnealing Sequence Designation 3′minCKO_1 GGCCGGATAAAACTTGTGCT 13′minCKO_2 AGTCTTCGGAACATCATCGC 2 5′minCKO_1 CCCTTTGCCCGAAGTAACAA 35′minCKO_2 ACGGTGAAAACCTGGCCTAT 4 minC_check_4_1 TCAATTTAACGGTTGAACGGTCA5 minC_check_4_2 ATGTCAAACACGCCAATCGA 6 minD_check_2_1TTATCCTCCGAACAAGCGTTTGA 7 minD_check_2_2 ATGGCACGCATTATTGTTGTTAC 8

TABLE 7 Components for PCR reaction Component 50 uL Reaction FinalConcentration 10 uM Forward Primer 2.5 uL 0.5 uM 10 uM Reverse Primer2.5 uL 0.5 uM DMSO 1.5 uL 3% 2X Phusion Master Mix  25 uL 1x Genomic DNA  1 uL   2 ng/uL Nuclease Free Water 17.5 uL  N/A

TABLE 8 Conditions for PCR reaction Conditions 55 Cycles StepsTemperature (° C.) Time (seconds) Initial Denaturation 98 30 CycleDenaturation 98 10 Cycle Annealing 65, 5º Gradient 30 Cycle Extension 7230 Final Extension 72 600  Hold  4 N/A

TABLE 9 Information on annealing temperatures for PCR reaction AnnealingTemperatures Tm Number Tm ° C. 1 59.9 2 61.3 3 63.8 4 66.6 5 69.7 6 67.6

After PCR amplification, all products were cleaned up using either theMonarch® PCR and DNA Clean up Kit or the DNA Clean & Concentrator Kit™-5with Zymo-Spin IC Columns. The purified PCR amplicants were then run ina DNA Agarose gel with the above conditions and visualized the same way.For both the A and B series, reactions using a pair of primers 1-2 andanother pair of primers 3-4 produced primarily a single band at theappropriate size, respectively. Reaction with a set of primers 7-8produced only a single band corresponding to the minD gene. Reactionusing a set of primers 5-6 was run to check for presence of minC, andthis reaction produced a stratification of bands indicating anonspecific PCR product which is to be expected after knocking out minC.All of these reactions were also run on the wild type genome forcomparison. Reactions using sets of primers 1-2 and 3-4 produced astratification of bands which is to be expected from BL21 and/or BL21-AIstrains with the insert of min C and/or D knock-out system, but not inthe wild type because the recombinant insert was not present in the wildtype genome. Reactions using sets of primers 5-6 and 7-8 produced asingle band indicating a specific PCR product, respectively.

All bands indicating a specific PCR product were extracted from the gelusing the Monarch® gel extraction kit and the DNA sequences wereanalyzed by Eton Biosciences. All DNA sequencing results showed almostidentical (99%) sequence homology to the expected sequence with min Cand/or D knocked out.

To isolation minicells from parental cells, the entire culture includingparent cells and minicells is spun down at 2,000 rcf for 10 minutes topellet the parental cells. The supernatant is then collected and spundown again at 10,000 rcf for 10 minutes to pellet the minicells. Thesupernatant is discarded and the pelleted minicells are resuspended inPBS or any other buffer based on their intended use.

TABLE 10 Listing of Sequences in Sequence File SEQ ID NO TypeDescription 1 DNA minC 5′ recombination site (5′ Homologous Arm of minC)2 DNA minC 3′ recombination site (3′ Homologous Arm of minC) 3 DNA minD5′ recombination site (5′ Homologous Arm of minD) 4 DNA minD 5′recombination site (3′ Homologous Arm of minD) 5 DNA AIDA-1 surfaceexpression cassette 6 DNA BrkAutoTransporter surface expression cassette7 DNA BrkAutoTransporter surface expression cassette fused withCBM-encoding nucleic acid 8 DNA Brk AutoTransporter surface expressioncassette fused with lipase-encoding nucleic acid 9 DNA CBM (CarbohydrateBinding Module)-encoding nucleic acid 10 DNA GFP-Nanobody sequence withCBM-encoding nucleic acid 11 DNA GFP-Nanobody sequence withlipase-encoding nucleic acid 12 DNA InaK surface expression cassette 13DNA InaK surface expression cassette with CBM-encoding nucleic acid 14DNA InaK surface expression cassette with lipase-encoding nucleic acid15 DNA The optimized Lipase-encoding nucleic acid (Bacillus sp. 42thermostable organic solvent tolerant lipase gene) 16 DNA pAIDA-1 vector17 DNA pAIDA-1 vector with CBM-encoding nucleic acid 18 DNA pAIDA-1vector with lipase-encodig nucleic acid 19 DNA pET-9a vector 20 DNApGEX-6P-1 vector without ATG for GST tag 21 DNA pGEX-6P-1 vector withoutATG for GST tag, containing BrkAutoTransporter surface expressioncassette fused with CBM-encoding nucleic acid 22 DNA pGEX-6P-1 vectorwithout ATG for GST tag, containing BrkAutoTransporter surfaceexpression cassette fused with lipase-encoding nucleic acid 23 DNApGEX-6P-1 vector without ATG for GST tag, containing InaK surfaceexpression cassette fused with CBM-encoding nucleic acid 24 DNApGEX-6P-1 vector without ATG for GST tag, containing InaK surfaceexpression cassette fused with lipase-encoding nucleic acid 25 DNA F2minCKO primer 26 DNA R2 minCKO primer 27 DNA F9 minCKO primer 28 DNA R9minCKO primer 29 DNA F7 minDKO primer 30 DNA R7 minDKO primer 31 DNA F10minDKO primer 32 DNA R10 minDKO primer 33 DNA F6 minCDKO primer 34 DNAR6 minCDKO primer 35 DNA F9 minCDKO primer 36 DNA R9 minCDKO primer 37DNA 3′minCKO_1 primer 38 DNA 3′minCKO_2 primer 38 DNA 5′minCKO_1 primer40 DNA 5′minCKO_2 primer 41 DNA minC_check_4_1 primer 42 DNAminC_check_4_2 primer 43 DNA minD_check_2_1 primer 44 DNA 3′minCKO_1primer

Example 2. Transformation of Lipase Expression Cassette into Minicells

The genetically modified minicell-producing bacterial strain wastransformed with a linker protein fused lipase expression plasmid.

The lipase-encoding gene was inserted into the AIDA-1 surface expressioncassette of the pAIDA-1 vector using KpnI and SacI restriction sites,which allows the lipase protein to be expressed and displayed by thefusion with the transmembrane autotransporter protein AIDA-1 (AdhesinInvolved in Diffuse Adherence) as shown in FIG. 4B. This constructionwas conducted with primarily designed pAIDA-1 plasmid (from Addgene,Cambirdge, Mass.) in which the lipase-encoding gene was ligated into thepassenger domain within the AIDA-I autotransporter using KpnI and SacIsites as illustrated in FIG. 4A. The tags existed on the pAIDA-1 plasmidprior were used for further analysis on lipase expression. After theligation is completed, the 6×His tag and HRV3C site are located atN-terminus of the lipase-encoding gene and the Myc tag and TEV site areplaced at C-terminus of the lipase-encoding gene. The 6×His tag, whichis the 5′ end of the surface-expressed fusion lipase protein was usedfor Cobalt immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) and forimmunofluorescent staining with THE His Tag antibody [FITC] fromGenscript. The pAIDA-1 vector has a chloramphenicol resistant gene sothat the recombinant pAIDA-lipase expression vector can be transformedinto p567-48 wild type strain, BL21 (DE3) strain, and BL21-AI strain. Inorder to induce minicell production from BL21 (DE3) strain and BL21-AIstrain, the present disclosure uses a minC, minD, and/or minC/D knockoutsystem by replacing the min locus with a chloramphenicol resistant gene.In this case, the new protease-deficient minicell-producing strains(e.g. minC, D, or C/D-depleted BL21 (DE3) strain and/or minC, D, orC/D-depleted BL21-AI strain) cannot be transformed with the recombinantpAIDA-1 lipase expression vector due to the presence of the samechloramphenicol resistant gene in both vector and the minicell-producingstrains.

In order to express the AIDA-1 lipase fusion protein, anotherrecombinant AIDA-Lipase expression plasmid was constructed in thebackbone of pGEX-6P-1 vector. The AIDA-1 lipase surface expressioncassette was cut from the pAIDA-1 lipase expression vector and clonedinto the pGEX-6P-1 vector as illustrated in FIG. 5A. In this way, thenew protease-deficient minicells, which has chloramphenicol resistantgene, can be selected with chloramphenicol because the pGEX-6P-1AIDA-1-lipase vector possess Amphicilin-resistant gene.

For a bacterial surface display system named as BrkAutoDisplay based onthe structure of autotransporter BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistancekilling protein A) was used to host an exogenous gene encoding lipase.To construct a recombinant Brk-lipase expression vector, Brkautotransporter gene was first cloned into the pGEX-6P-1 plasmid. UsingBamHI and EcoRI restriction sites, the lipase-encoding gene was ligatedwith the Brk autotransporter gene, as illustrated in FIG. 6A. Asillustrated in FIG. 6B, the lipase-encoding gene was inserted into thepassenger domain of BrkA autotransporter gene. The first 177 nucleotidesof the expression cassette correspond to the signaling peptide portionof the Brk autotransporter. This is the most N-terminus region of thefusion protein. This portion is cleaved during the translocationprocess. Immediately at the end of C-terminus of the signaling peptideis located the 6×His tag used for purification and staining. This 6×Histag is the surface expressed N-terminus end of the fusion protein afterthe signal peptide is cut off. C-terminus to the His tag is fused to thelipase-encoding gene, which is followed by the Myc tag and the TEV sitesequentially. Then, the translocation domain of the BrkA autotransporteris located right after the TEV site. This translocation domain of thefusion protein is the most C-terminus region of the protein that isembedded in the membrane.

Another bacterial surface display protein, Ice Nucleation Protein K(InaK) was used for expressing recombinant lipase proteins fused toanchoring linker protein (motif) that direct the incorporated fusionprotein on the surface of minicells. Like BrkAutoDisplay, polynucleotideencoding InaK transmembrane protein and the lipase-encoding gene wereinserted into the pGEX-6P-1 vector for producing the bacterial surfacedisplay lipase protein as illustrated in FIG. 7A. For all InaK-lipasefusions, the lipase-encoding gene has a 6×His tag and an Myc tag at theC-terminus, while the TEV site is fused to N-terminus of thelipase-encoding gene. In this construct, the polynucleotide sequenceencoding InaK is located before N-terminus of the TEV site. SinceC-terminus of InaK protein is surface expressed and the N-terminus endbecomes embedded in the membrane, the lipase-encoding gene is insertedafter InaK-encoding polynucleotide sequence, which allows the lipase tobe displayed on the surface while the InaK can function as a membraneanchor. The 6×His tag was used for the Cobalt immobilized metal affinitychromatography (IMAC) and for immunofluorescent staining with THE HisTag antibody [FITC] from Genscript®. The Myc tag can be used forimmunofluorescent staining. The TEV site can be used for digesting offthe protein of interest such as lipase for surface expressionconfirmation.

After construction of bacterial expression vectors for bacterial surfacedisplay fusion proteins using AIDA-1, BrkA, and InaK system wascompleted, transformation of each expression vector was conducted usingthe TransformAid Bacterial Transformation Kit (Thermo Scientific™)according to their standard protocol into the protease-deficient celllines, BL21 and/or BL21-AI strains. The lipase was fused to each linkerprotein of AIDA-1, BrkA, and InaK to ensure surface-expression of thelipase. These expression plasmid can be transformed into the wild-typep678-54 strain and protease-deficient minicell-producing bacterialstrains generated by the method taught in the present disclosure (e.g.minC, D, or C/D-depleted BL21 (DE3) strain and/or minC, D, orC/D-depleted BL21-AI strain).

In order to confirm presence of plasmid in the transformed bacterialstrains, a miniprep was done on a culture from the strains using GeneJetPlasmid MiniPrep Kit, and the purified plasmid was submitted for DNAsequencing analysis. All sequencing confirmed the presence of thesurface expression lipase plasmids in the transformed bacterial strains.

Example 3. Protein Production

The transformed strain was grown overnight in a 5 mL culture with theappropriate antibiotic. The next day, 1:100 inoculation of the culturedstrain (2.5 mL of overnight culture in 250 mL of 2×YT media) wasperformed in 2×YT media plus appropriate antibiotic. The 2×YT mediaprovided the surplus of nutrients necessary for efficient proteinproduction. Once the culture reached the exponential growth stage (ODabout 0.4), it was induced with 1 mM IPTG and is incubated at 30° C.overnight. The culture then was analyzed the next day for lipaseproduction.

Example 4. Protein Imaging/Staining

The cultured cells are subjected to staining in order to determine thepresence surface-expressed lipase. Slides were developed for both theLipase-expressing minicell-producing bacterial BL21 and/or BL21-AIstrain and the minicell-producing bacterial p678-54 strain that has notbeen transformed with the recombinant linker protein-fused lipaseexpression plasmid. 250 uL of poly-L-lysine was pipetted on slides for15 minutes. After washing three times with 500 uL PBS, 500 uL of thecorrect cell type was pipetted on slides for 15 minutes. After washingthree times with 500 uL PBS, 750 uL of 4% paraformaldehyde was pipettedon slides for 15 minutes in order to fix the cell samples to the slides.After washing three times with PBS, 500 uL of 0.1% triton x-100 PBS wasadded to slides allocated as permeabilized samples for 10 minutes. Fornon-permeabilized samples, 500 uL of PBS was added to slides during thisstep. After washing three times with PBS, 100 uL of 2% bovine serumalbumin was pipetted on all slides as a blocking agent. After washingthree times with PBS, on the slides it was pipetted 100 uL of 1 mg/mLGenScript® THE™ His Tag Antibody [FITC], mAb, Mouse antibody, whichbinds to the 6×-HIS tag component of the Lipase fusion protein. Then,the slides were incubated with the antibody at room temperature for 1hour while protected from light. After washing 5-10 times with PBS, 3-4drops of Fluoroshield Mounting Medium with DAPI were added beforemounting coverslips to the slides. Fluorescent microscopy can then beimplemented to analyze localization between brightfield cells andfluorescent probes that are indicative of cell presence andsurface-expressed protein presence.

For identifying surface expression, cells were not permeabilized so thatthe stain cannot enter the cells and stain for internally expressedlipases. Thus, the non-permiabilized minicell stained with His-tagantibody presents the fusion lipase expression on the minicell surface.At first, FIG. 9A shows the expression of AIDA-1 lipase fusion proteinon the surface of non-permeabilized minicells, when compared to controlminicells that did not have the recombinant fusion lipase expressionvector (FIG. 9C). This surface expressed lipase proteins indicates thatlipase is immobilized on the surface of the minicells via themembraned-associated autotransporter AIDA-1 protein. Also, the detectionof Brk-lipase fusion protein as shown in FIG. 9B demonstrates thatlipase is stabilized on the surface of the minicells through the anotherautotransporter Brk protein, when compared to control minicells that didnot have the recombinant fusion lipase expression vector (FIG. 9D).FIGS. 9C and 9D show no or little lipase expression fromnon-permeabilized control minicells.

In both permeabilized and nonpermeabilized minicells, the staining withHis-tag antibody showed a strong signal in a majority of the populationof the cells that expressing InaK-lipase fusion proteins (FIGS. 10A and10B). However, the His-tag antibody detected little to no signal in thecontrol samples (FIGS. 10C and 10D). The control samples are wild typep678-54 minicells that do not contain the recombinant lipase expressingplasmid so that the fusion protein cannot be detectable. Therefore, theHis tag staining results indicate the expression of the fusion lipasefrom the minicells transformed with the recombinant lipase expressionplasmid, but not the control cells. Non-permeabilized minicells (FIG.10A) show the surface expressed lipase proteins, indicating that lipaseis immobilized via the InaK linker protein on the surface of theminicells. However, the recombinant lipase is not all surface expressedfrom the comparison of non-permeabilized cells with permeabilized cells(FIG. 10B), indicating that endogenous lipases and/or recombinant fusionlipase minicells can be also expressed within the minicells. On theother hand, a false positive by staining any endogenously producedlipases within the transformed minicells can be detected as illustratedin in the control minicells (FIGS. 10C and 10D).

Example 5. Protein Purification

Once the protein production was confirmed, the cells are ready toundergo protein purification for functional studies. The cells wereincubated with Lysis Buffer for at least six hours at 37° C. They werethen frozen at −20° C. They underwent at least one more freeze-thawcycle prior to purification. Once the lysis process was complete, thecell samples are centrifuged at 10,000 rcf for 10 minutes to pellet thecell debris. The supernatant was then filtered through a Puradisc 25 mm,sterile Whatman 0.45 uM filter prior to the protein purificationprocess.

The supernatant was incubated in a 20 mL Econopac Gravity Flow columnwith about 2 mL of HisPur™ Cobalt Superflow Agarose that had beenequilibrated with 4 mL of Equilibration Buffer for 30 minutes in an endover end rotary mixer. The supernatant was flowed through the column.Then, the resin was washed three times with 4 mL of wash buffer beforeelution with 4 fractions of 2 mL each of elution buffer. Equal volumesof glycerol was added to elution fractions 1 and 2 and were dialyzedovernight in 50% glycerol (v/v) and 50 mM Sodium Phosphate buffersolution pH 7.2. After dialysis, the elution fractions were checked forpresence of the fusion protein using the lipase assay. Presence of thelipase in each elution fraction was elucidated from the lipase assaydescribed below using 50 mM 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate against a variety ofcontrol purifications. At first, the protease-deficient B8 and P678-54cell lines were used for control, as they contained no recombinantlipase expression plasmids. Thus they do not have recombinant proteins,resulting in no lipase activity in the lipase assay. While P678-54strain is the wild type minicell-producing strain that is commerciallyavailable, the B8 minicell strain was produced from the BL21 (DE3)strain, but the T7 RNA Polymerase activity was additionally silencedalong with minC/minD/minCD knock-out effect. This B8 strain is theprotease-deficient producing minicell strain without the T7 RNAPolymerase, which make it suitable for lipase assay as a negativecontrol. The protease-deficient B8 strain without fusion lipase is usedas Protease Deficient Control. Furthermore, the Brk-CBM and Inak-CBM(CBM: cellulose-binding domain) fusion protein was also used as anotherLinking Mechanism Control displaying the purified active CBM fusionenzyme that cannot act on the substrate given for the lipase assay. Asshown in FIGS. 11A and 11B, both Brk-lipase and the Inak-lipase producedmeasurable lipase activity compared to protease-deficient control, wildstrain control and linking mechanism control, respectively, thusdemonstrating production of recombinant lipases in the BL21(DE3)-derivedminicells.

Example 6. Functional Lipase Activity Analysis

In order to further confirm presence of the functional lipase-fusionprotein in both the elution fraction from the protein purification andthe surface of the cell, a lipase activity assay was designed using thelipase substrate, 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate. This assay was designed usingthe Sigma-Aldrich quality control assay for lipoprotein lipases (EC3.1.1.34), which can also serve as a substrate for the same type oflipase fused to the surface expression carrier proteins, atriacylglycerol lipase, (EC 3.1.1.3) using Type II Lipase from PorcinePancreas as well described in Enzymatic Assay of Lipoprotein Lipaseprotocol found in sigma aldrich online webpage. Kinetic analysis of theenzymatic reaction of lipase was conducted using a method of continuousspectrophotometric rate determination at 400 nm using Beer's law (A=εlC)and the extinction coefficient 0.0148 (uM⁻¹*cm⁻¹). The pathlength, 0.625cm, was calculated from the known volume of the well (200 uL) and thewell's surface area (0.32 cm²).

For the enzymatic assay, required are the reaction buffer (100 mM SodiumPhosphate Buffer solution pH 7.2, 0.5% (v/v) Triton-X 100, 150 mM SodiumChloride), the enzyme/cell solution in 1×PBS, and the substrate solutionwhich is varying concentrations of 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate inacetonitrile. 148 uL of the reaction buffer, 50 uL of the enzyme/cellsolution, and 2 uL of the substrate solution were loaded into each wellimmediate prior to the start of the continuous spectrophotometric ratedetermination at 37° C. for 5 minutes. Then, rates were calculated bycalculating the slope of the line of the concentration increase (Beer'slaw) versus the time the reaction proceeded in seconds. Activity wasdetermined from a Michaelis-Menten fit of the calculated rates resultingfrom varying the substrate concentration according to the Table 10. Vmaxand Km were calculated using GraphPad Prism Michaelis-Menten fittingparameters. FIG. 12 shows that the enzymatic reaction of AIDA-lipase(FIG. 12A and Table 11), Brk-lipase (FIG. 12B and Table 12), andInaK-lipase (FIG. 12C and Table 13) to 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate substrate,respectively.

TABLE 10 Substrate Concentrations for calculating enzymatic reactionrate Stock Concentrations Concentrations in Well (mM) (mM) 0 0 2.5 0.0255 0.05 7.5 0.075 10 0.1 15 0.15 20 0.2 25 0.25 30 0.3 35 0.35 40 0.4 450.45 50 0.5 60 0.6 70 0.7 80 0.8 500 5

TABLE 11 Enzymatic reaction rate of pAIDA-lipase pAIDA-LipaseExperimental Average Rate (uM/s) Michaelis-Menten Cells/Well: 99,946,667Best-fit values Vmax 0.08174 Km 0.1803 Std. Error Vmax 0.008508 Km0.05912 95% CI (profile likelihood) Vmax 0.06857 to 0.09734 Km  0.104 to0.2922 Goodness of Fit Degrees of Freedom 49 R square 0.6414 AbsoluteSum of Squares 0.01626 Sy.x 0.01822 Constraints Km Km > 0

TABLE 12 Enzymatic reaction rate of Brk-lipase Brk-Lipase Brk-LipaseAverage Rate (uM/s) Michaelis-Menten Cells/Well: 17,706,667 Best-fitvalues Vmax 0.04453 Km 0.2207 Std. Error Vmax 0.003487 Km 0.05025 95% CI(profile likelihood) Vmax 0.03894 to 0.05088 Km 0.1503 to 0.3134Goodness of Fit Degrees of Freedom 49 R square 0.7838 Absolute Sum ofSquares 0.002289 Sy.x 0.006834 Constraints Km Km > 0

TABLE 13 Enzymatic reaction rate of Inak-lipase Inak-Lipase ExperimentalAverage Rate (uM/s) Michaelis-Menten Cells/Well: 107,840,000 Best-fitvalues Vmax 0.06354 Km 0.3015 Std. Error Vmax 0.009548 Km 0.1109 95% CI(profile likelihood) Vmax 0.04894 to 0.08074 Km 0.1649 to 0.5114Goodness of Fit Degrees of Freedom 49 R square 0.6375 Absolute Sum ofSquares 0.009709 Sy.x 0.01539 Constraints Km Km > 0

Example 7. Lipase Surface Expression Via Minicell Self AssemblyTechnology

As described above, lipase from Bacillus sp. was surface expressed withthree different linker proteins (Ice nucleation activation protein K(InaK), BrK AutoDisplay, and pAIDA-1). The lipase immobilized on thesurface of minicells via the transmembrane linker proteins was analyzedusing the His-tag staining and functional enzyme activity assay asdescribed in Examples 4-6. General lipase expression was identified bystaining permeabilized cells. Then, to identify surface expression,cells were not permeabilized, which prevents staining for internallyexpressed lipases within the cells. The positive staining ofnon-permeabilized cells indicate the exogenous expression of immobilizedenzyme on the surface of the cells excluding the possibility ofendogenous protein expression as false positive. As shown in Examplesabove, the His-tag antibody detected a strong signal in a majority ofthe population of the cells in both the permeabilized andnon-permeabilized minicells, indicating that lipase is immobilized andstabilized by the linker protein on the surface of minicells. On theother hand, the His-tag antibody detected little to no signal in thecontrol p678-54 strains without exogenous fusion lipase expression.

Example 8. Production of Non-Inducible Protease-Deficient Minicelland/or Inducible Protease-Deficient Minicell

As described in example 1, a protease-deficient minicell producingstrain is generated. The strain that spontaneously produce minicellsonce the knockout has been performed at all stages of cell growth. Theprocess for producing minicell producing strain. The process for that isas follows:

A protease deficient cell line, which is the BL21 and its derivatives isused. When a strain that is not protease-deficient is used, a proteaseknockout vector such as the WprA-CamR vector shown in FIG. 18 can alsobe used to knock out protease and/or suppress protease activity in hostcells via genetic engineering techniques. Interchangeably to the processdescribed in Example 1, the following process for generatingnon-inducible minicell producing strain can be also used as follows:

-   -   Step 1: Transform cell-line with lambda red recombination        plasmid (this plasmid codes for the Beta, Gam and Exo proteins        that are involved in catalyzing homology driven recombination)    -   Step 2: The min knock-out construct is then used as a PCR        template to amplify out the sequence of DNA that has homologous        5′ and 3′ ends to the intended knockout site for the min C, minD        or minCD.    -   Step 3: The PCR amplified product is purified and transformed        into the cell line from step 1. PCR product is the DNA that has        homologous ends with an antibiotic marker between the ends to        allow for selection of successful knockouts.    -   Step 4: The cell line from step 3 is then induced for protein        production from the lambda red recombination plasmid. The        encoded proteins catalyze the knockout.    -   Step 5: The cells are then selected for by using the appropriate        antibiotics.

This cell line is then used for transformation and expression of therecombinant fusion constructs described in this disclosure, from whichthe minicells that express the fusion constructs on their surface can beproduced.

Also, a strain that can be induced to initiate minicell production usinginducible system at the specific stage of cell growth and/or at thedesired timing can be generated. The inducible minicell production canbe developed using inducible expression system for protein of interest.This inducible minicell production can be performed inprotease-deficient minicell producing strains either using FtsZ and/orMinE overproduction via a recombinant expression cassette foroverexpression FtsZ or negative regulation of the Min locus to allow forinducible repression of the MinC/MinD/MinCD proteins. Upon the treatmentof induction at a desired timing, either the overexpression effect onFtsZ and/or MinE or the knockout effect on MinC/MinD/MinCD can allow forproduction of protease-deficient minicells.

Numbered Embodiments of the Disclosure

Notwithstanding the appended claims, the disclosure sets forth thefollowing numbered embodiments:

Platform

-   -   1. An industrially suitable anucleated cell-based enzyme        immobilization and delivery platform, comprising:        -   a. an intact anucleated cell derived from a protease            deficient parental cell, said anucleated cell comprising an            expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface            of said cell.    -   2. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the parental        cell.    -   3. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected from        the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose        isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase, cellulase,        endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin        lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase,        lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase,        tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase,        lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde        dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase,        xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase.    -   4. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.    -   5. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase.    -   6. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is derived from a prokaryotic cell.    -   7. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell.    -   8. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram negative        bacterial genus.    -   9. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genus        selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia, Salmonella,        Shigella, Pseudomonas, and Agrobacterium.    -   10. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial species        selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia coli,        Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Pseudomonas        aeruginosa.    -   11. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram positive        bacterial genus.    -   12. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genus        selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus,        Corynebacterium, and Lactobacillus.    -   13. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial species        selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus subtilis,        Corynebacterium glutamicum, and Lactobacillus acidophilus.    -   14. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is        produced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in WprA        protease.    -   15. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is        produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis parental        bacterial cell.    -   16. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is        produced from a protease deficient KO7 B. subtilis parental        bacterial cell.    -   17. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is        produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis parental        bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of: (1)        CU403,DIVIVA; (2) CU403,DIVIVB,SPO−; (3) CU403,DIVIVB; and (4)        CU403,DIVIVB1, wherein at least one protease encoding gene has        been repressed, deleted, or silenced.    -   18. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is        produced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in Lon and        OmpT proteases.    -   19. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is        produced from a protease deficient E. coli parental bacterial        cell.    -   20. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is        produced from a protease deficient E. coli parental bacterial        cell selected from the group consisting of: BL21, BL21(DE3),        BL21-AI, LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) and B8.    -   21. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said        intact anucleated cell is derived from a eukaryotic cell.    -   22. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein.    -   23. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising        at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one        enzymatically active moiety.    -   24. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising        at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one        enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a            transmembrane domain and is selected from the group            consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA            (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA            (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).    -   25. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising        at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one        enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported            bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting            of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer            membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp            (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA            (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13            major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor            coat (Gene III).    -   26. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a second polypeptide on its surface,        in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.    -   27. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a heterologous polypeptide on its        surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.    -   28. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in        addition to the self-assembled enzyme.    -   29. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in        addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein        comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one plant cell adhesion moiety.    -   30. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in        addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein        comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one plant cell adhesion moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a            transmembrane domain and is selected from the group            consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA            (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA            (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).    -   31. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in        addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein        comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one plant cell adhesion moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported            bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting            of: LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer            membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp            (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA            (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13            major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor            coat (Gene III).    -   32. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in        addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein        comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one plant cell adhesion moiety,        -   wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a            carbohydrate binding module.    -   33. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in        addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein        comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one plant cell adhesion moiety,        -   wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a            carbohydrate binding module selected from the group            consisting of: a cellulose binding domain, a xylan binding            domain, a chitin binding domain, and a lignin binding            domain.    -   34. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a polypeptide on its surface that        increases adhesion to a plant surface, in addition to the        self-assembled enzyme.    -   35. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a plant adhesion polypeptide on its        surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.    -   36. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a carbohydrate binding module that is        displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled        enzyme.    -   37. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a heterologous carbohydrate binding        module that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the        self-assembled enzyme.    -   38. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a cellulose binding domain that is        displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled        enzyme.    -   39. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell expresses a heterologous cellulose binding        domain that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the        self-assembled enzyme.    -   40. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell is used as a resin for immobilizing a        polypeptide, wherein the anucleated cell expresses endogenous        surface expressing moiety that have a binding domain, and        wherein the binding domain is capable of binding to the        polypeptide that has a binding site.    -   41. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell is used for purifying a polypeptide, wherein the        polypeptide is immobilized to the anucleated cell by incubation.    -   42. A method of improving activity and stability of an        anucleated cell-based enzyme, comprising: applying the        anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses to a substrate,        -   wherein the anucleated cell is derived from a protease            deficient parental cell, and wherein the anucleated cell            comprises an expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to            the surface of said cell.    -   43. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the        parental cell.    -   44. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected        from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase,        glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,        cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases,        lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase,        peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline        phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol        dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde        dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase,        succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and        laccase.    -   45. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.    -   46. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the        substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity.    -   47. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the        substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity, and        wherein said enzymatic activity is associated with fatty acid        and oily stain removal, biodiesel production via        transesterification, dough stability and conditioning in baking,        pitch control and contaminant control for production of pulp and        paper, and resolution of chiral alcohols and amines.    -   48. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase.    -   49. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase,        wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for        enzymatic activity.    -   50. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase,        wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for        enzymatic activity, and wherein said enzymatic activity is        associated with glucose to fructose conversion for production of        high-fructose corn syrup.    -   51. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        anucleated cell comprises at least two expressed self-assembled        enzymes immobilized to the surface of said cell.    -   52. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of        the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein,        comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one enzymatically active moiety.    -   53. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of        the expressed self-assembled enzymes is heterologous to the        parental cell.    -   54. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of        the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein,        comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said enzymatically active moiety is selected from            the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase,            glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,            cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases,            lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase,            peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline            phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol            dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde            dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate            dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase,            mannanase, and laccase.    -   55. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein one of        the expressed self-assembled enzymes is lipase.    -   56. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein one of        the expressed self-assembled enzymes is glucose isomerase.    -   57. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein one of        the expressed self-assembled enzymes is protease.    -   58. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of        the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein,        comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a            transmembrane domain and is selected from the group            consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA            (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA            (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).    -   59. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of        the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein,        comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported            bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting            of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer            membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp            (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA            (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13            major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor            coat (Gene III).    -   60. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the at        least two expressed self-assembled enzymes are co-localized to a        desired locus, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled        enzymes have its enzymatic activity at the desired locus.    -   61. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzymes are lipase and protease.    -   62. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the        expressed self-assembled enzymes are glucose isomerase and        protease.    -   63. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the at        least two expressed self-assembled enzymes have a complimentary        function.    -   64. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the at        least two expressed self-assembled enzymes act synergistically.    -   65. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the at        least two expressed self-assembled enzymes each work to carry        out a portion of an overall enzymatic reaction.

Compositions

-   -   1. A composition for enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform, comprising:        -   a. an intact anucleated cell derived from a protease            deficient parental cell, said anucleated cell comprising an            expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface            of said cell.    -   2. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to        the parental cell.    -   3. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one        selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase,        isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta        amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases,        beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease,        transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase,        catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease,        dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase,        acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate        dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase,        mannanase, and laccase.    -   4. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.    -   5. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose        isomerase.    -   6. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is derived from a        prokaryotic cell.    -   7. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived        minicell.    -   8. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram        negative bacterial genus.    -   9. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial        genus selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia,        Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, and Agrobacterium.    -   10. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial        species selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia coli,        Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Pseudomonas        aeruginosa.    -   11. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram        positive bacterial genus.    -   12. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial        genus selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus,        Corynebacterium, and Lactobacillus.    -   13. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial        species selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus        subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, and Lactobacillus        acidophilus.    -   14. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived        minicell that is produced from a parental bacterial cell        deficient in WprA protease.    -   15. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived        minicell that is produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis        parental bacterial cell.    -   16. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived        minicell that is produced from a protease deficient KO7 B.        subtilis parental bacterial cell.    -   17. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived        minicell that is produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis        parental bacterial cell selected from the group consisting        of: (1) CU403,DIVIVA; (2) CU403,DIVIVB,SPO−; (3) CU403,DIVIVB;        and (4) CU403,DIVIVB1, wherein at least one protease encoding        gene has been repressed, deleted, or silenced.    -   18. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived        minicell that is produced from a parental bacterial cell        deficient in Lon and OmpT proteases.    -   19. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived        minicell that is produced from a protease deficient E. coli        parental bacterial cell.    -   20. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived        minicell that is produced from a protease deficient E. coli        parental bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of:        BL21, BL21(DE3), BL21-AI, LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) and B8.    -   21. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein said intact anucleated cell is derived from a eukaryotic        cell.    -   22. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein.    -   23. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein,        comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one enzymatically active moiety.    -   24. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein,        comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a            transmembrane domain and is selected from the group            consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA            (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA            (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).    -   25. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein,        comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least        one enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported            bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting            of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer            membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp            (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA            (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13            major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor            coat (Gene III).    -   26. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a second polypeptide on        its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.    -   27. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous polypeptide        on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.    -   28. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its        surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.    -   29. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its        surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion        protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and        at least one plant cell adhesion moiety.    -   30. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its        surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion        protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and        at least one plant cell adhesion moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a            transmembrane domain and is selected from the group            consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA            (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA            (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).    -   31. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its        surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion        protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and        at least one plant cell adhesion moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported            bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting            of: LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer            membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp            (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA            (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13            major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor            coat (Gene III).    -   32. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its        surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion        protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and        at least one plant cell adhesion moiety,        -   wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a            carbohydrate binding module.    -   33. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its        surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion        protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and        at least one plant cell adhesion moiety,        -   wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a            carbohydrate binding module selected from the group            consisting of: a cellulose binding domain, a xylan binding            domain, a chitin binding domain, and a lignin binding            domain.    -   34. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a polypeptide on its        surface that increases adhesion to a plant surface, in addition        to the self-assembled enzyme.    -   35. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a plant adhesion        polypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled        enzyme.    -   36. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a carbohydrate binding        module that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the        self-assembled enzyme.    -   37. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous        carbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface, in        addition to the self-assembled enzyme.    -   38. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a cellulose binding domain        that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the        self-assembled enzyme.    -   39. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous cellulose        binding domain that is displayed on its surface, in addition to        the self-assembled enzyme.    -   40. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell is used as a resin for immobilizing        a polypeptide, wherein the anucleated cell expresses endogenous        surface expressing moiety that have a binding domain, and        wherein the binding domain is capable of binding to the        polypeptide that has a binding site.    -   41. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell is used for purifying a polypeptide,        wherein the polypeptide is immobilized to the anucleated cell by        incubation.    -   42. A method of improving activity and stability of an        anucleated cell-based enzyme, comprising: applying the        anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery        platform as in any one of the preceding clauses to a substrate,        -   wherein the anucleated cell is derived from a protease            deficient parental cell, and wherein the anucleated cell            comprises an expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to            the surface of said cell.    -   43. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the        parental cell.    -   44. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected        from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase,        glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,        cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases,        lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase,        peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline        phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol        dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde        dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase,        succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and        laccase.    -   45. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.    -   46. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the        substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity.    -   47. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the        substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity, and        wherein said enzymatic activity is associated with fatty acid        and oily stain removal, biodiesel production via        transesterification, dough stability and conditioning in baking,        pitch control and contaminant control for production of pulp and        paper, and resolution of chiral alcohols and amines.    -   48. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase.    -   49. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase,        wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for        enzymatic activity.    -   50. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein        the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase,        wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for        enzymatic activity, and wherein said enzymatic activity is        associated with glucose to fructose conversion for production of        high-fructose corn syrup.    -   51. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the anucleated cell comprises at least two expressed        self-assembled enzymes immobilized to the surface of said cell.    -   52. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion        protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and        at least one enzymatically active moiety.    -   53. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is        heterologous to the parental cell.    -   54. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion        protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and        at least one enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said enzymatically active moiety is selected from            the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase,            glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,            cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases,            lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase,            peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline            phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol            dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde            dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate            dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase,            mannanase, and laccase.    -   55. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is lipase.    -   56. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is glucose        isomerase.    -   57. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is protease.    -   58. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion        protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and        at least one enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a            transmembrane domain and is selected from the group            consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA            (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA            (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).    -   59. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion        protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and        at least one enzymatically active moiety,        -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported            bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting            of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer            membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp            (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA            (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13            major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor            coat (Gene III).    -   60. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes are        co-localized to a desired locus, wherein each of the expressed        self-assembled enzymes have its enzymatic activity at the        desired locus.    -   61. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzymes are lipase and        protease.    -   62. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the expressed self-assembled enzymes are glucose        isomerase and protease.    -   63. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes have a        complimentary function.    -   64. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes act        synergistically.    -   65. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,        wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes each        work to carry out a portion of an overall enzymatic reaction.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All references, articles, publications, patents, patent publications,and patent applications cited herein are incorporated by reference intheir entireties for all purposes. However, mention of any reference,article, publication, patent, patent publication, and patent applicationcited herein is not, and should not be taken as an acknowledgment or anyform of suggestion that they constitute valid prior art or form part ofthe common general knowledge in any country in the world.

REFERENCES

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What is claimed is:
 1. An industrially suitable anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform, comprising: a. an intactanucleated cell derived from a protease deficient parental cell, saidanucleated cell comprising at least one expressed self-assembled enzymeimmobilized to the surface of said cell.
 2. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to theparental cell.
 3. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the expressedself-assembled enzyme is at least one selected from the group consistingof: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alphaamylase, beta amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases,beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase,desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkalinephosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase,lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehydedehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase,xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase.
 4. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.
 5. The anucleatedcell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according toclaim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucoseisomerase.
 6. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleatedcell is derived from a prokaryotic cell.
 7. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell.8. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is producedfrom a gram negative bacterial genus.
 9. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genusselected from the group consisting of: Escherichia, Salmonella,Shigella, Pseudomonas, and Agrobacterium.
 10. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial speciesselected from the group consisting of: Escherichia coli, Salmonellatyphimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
 11. Theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is producedfrom a gram positive bacterial genus.
 12. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genusselected from the group consisting of: Bacillus, Corynebacterium, andLactobacillus.
 13. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleatedcell is produced from a bacterial species selected from the groupconsisting of: Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, andLactobacillus acidophilus.
 14. The anucleated cell-based enzymeimmobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein saidintact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that isproduced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in WprA protease. 15.The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is abacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficientB. subtilis parental bacterial cell.
 16. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicellthat is produced from a protease deficient KO7 B. subtilis parentalbacterial cell.
 17. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleatedcell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a proteasedeficient B. subtilis parental bacterial cell selected from the groupconsisting of: (1) CU403,DIVIVA; (2) CU403,DIVIVB,SPO−; (3)CU403,DIVIVB; and (4) CU403,DIVIVB1, wherein at least one proteaseencoding gene has been repressed, deleted, or silenced.
 18. Theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is abacterially derived minicell that is produced from a parental bacterialcell deficient in Lon and OmpT proteases.
 19. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicellthat is produced from a protease deficient E. coli parental bacterialcell.
 20. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and deliveryplatform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is abacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficientE. coli parental bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of:BL21, BL21(DE3), BL21-AI, LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) and B8.
 21. Theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is derivedfrom a eukaryotic cell.
 22. The anucleated cell-based enzymeimmobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein theexpressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein.
 23. The anucleatedcell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according toclaim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusionprotein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at leastone enzymatically active moiety.
 24. The anucleated cell-based enzymeimmobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein theexpressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising at leastone surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically activemoiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a transmembranedomain and is selected from the group consisting of: an ice nucleationprotein (INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), andAIDA (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).
 25. The anucleatedcell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according toclaim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusionprotein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at leastone enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moietycomprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the groupconsisting of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membraneprotein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE(Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 orM13 minor coat (Gene III).
 26. The anucleated cell-based enzymeimmobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein theanucleated cell expresses a second polypeptide on its surface, inaddition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 27. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous polypeptide on itssurface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 28. The anucleatedcell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according toclaim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on itssurface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 29. The anucleatedcell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according toclaim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on itssurface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion proteincomprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least oneplant cell adhesion moiety.
 30. The anucleated cell-based enzymeimmobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein theanucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in additionto the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at leastone surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesionmoiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a transmembranedomain and is selected from the group consisting of: an ice nucleationprotein (INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), andAIDA (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).
 31. The anucleatedcell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according toclaim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on itssurface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion proteincomprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least oneplant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said surface expressing moietycomprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the groupconsisting of: LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outermembrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein),MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 orM13 minor coat (Gene III).
 32. The anucleated cell-based enzymeimmobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein theanucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in additionto the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at leastone surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesionmoiety, wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a carbohydratebinding module.
 33. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cellexpresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to theself-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least onesurface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety,wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a carbohydrate bindingmodule selected from the group consisting of: a cellulose bindingdomain, a xylan binding domain, a chitin binding domain, and a ligninbinding domain.
 34. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cellexpresses a polypeptide on its surface that increases adhesion to aplant surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 35. Theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a plantadhesion polypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembledenzyme.
 36. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and deliveryplatform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses acarbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface, inaddition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 37. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous carbohydratebinding module that is displayed on its surface, in addition to theself-assembled enzyme.
 38. The anucleated cell-based enzymeimmobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein theanucleated cell expresses a cellulose binding domain that is displayedon its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 39. Theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses aheterologous cellulose binding domain that is displayed on its surface,in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 40. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1,wherein the anucleated cell is used as a resin for immobilizing apolypeptide, wherein the anucleated cell expresses endogenous surfaceexpressing moiety that have a binding domain, and wherein the bindingdomain is capable of binding to the polypeptide that has a binding site.41. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and deliveryplatform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell is used forpurifying a polypeptide, wherein the polypeptide is immobilized to theanucleated cell by incubation.
 42. A method of improving activity andstability of an anucleated cell-based enzyme, comprising: applying theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 1 to a substrate, wherein the anucleated cell isderived from a protease deficient parental cell, and wherein theanucleated cell comprises an expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilizedto the surface of said cell.
 43. The method according to claim 42,wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to theparental cell.
 44. The method according to claim 42, wherein theexpressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected from the groupconsisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase,alpha amylase, beta amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases,beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase,desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkalinephosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase,lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehydedehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase,xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase.
 45. The method according toclaim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.
 46. Themethod according to claim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembledenzyme is lipase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the lipase forenzymatic activity.
 47. The method according to claim 42, wherein theexpressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the substrate isreacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity, and wherein saidenzymatic activity is associated with fatty acid and oily stain removal,biodiesel production via transesterification, dough stability andconditioning in baking, pitch control and contaminant control forproduction of pulp and paper, and resolution of chiral alcohols andamines.
 48. The method according to claim 42, wherein the expressedself-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase.
 49. The method according toclaim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucoseisomerase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerasefor enzymatic activity.
 50. The method according to claim 42, whereinthe expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase, wherein thesubstrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for enzymatic activity,and wherein said enzymatic activity is associated with glucose tofructose conversion for production of high-fructose corn syrup.
 51. Theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell comprises at least twoexpressed self-assembled enzymes immobilized to the surface of saidcell.
 52. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and deliveryplatform according to claim 51, wherein each of the expressedself-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least onesurface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety.53. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and deliveryplatform according to claim 51, wherein each of the expressedself-assembled enzymes is heterologous to the parental cell.
 54. Theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 51, wherein each of the expressed self-assembledenzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressingmoiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein saidenzymatically active moiety is selected from the group consisting of:esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase,beta amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases,beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase,desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkalinephosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase,lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehydedehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase,xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase.
 55. The anucleated cell-basedenzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51,wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is lipase.
 56. Theanucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 51, wherein one of the expressed self-assembledenzymes is glucose isomerase.
 57. The anucleated cell-based enzymeimmobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein oneof the expressed self-assembled enzymes is protease.
 58. The anucleatedcell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according toclaim 51, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is afusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and atleast one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressingmoiety comprises a transmembrane domain and is selected from the groupconsisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA (Bordetellaserum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA (Adhesin Involved in DiffuseAdherence).
 59. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform according to claim 51, wherein each of the expressedself-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least onesurface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety,wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported bacterialprotein and is selected from the group consisting of LamB (lambdareceptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein F), OmpA (outermembrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein),PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13 majorcoat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor coat (Gene III). 60.The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platformaccording to claim 51, wherein the at least two expressed self-assembledenzymes are co-localized to a desired locus, wherein each of theexpressed self-assembled enzymes have its enzymatic activity at thedesired locus.
 61. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform according to claim 60, wherein the expressedself-assembled enzymes are lipase and protease.
 62. The anucleatedcell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according toclaim 60, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzymes are glucoseisomerase and protease.
 63. The anucleated cell-based enzymeimmobilization and delivery platform according to 51, wherein the atleast two expressed self-assembled enzymes have a complimentaryfunction.
 64. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization anddelivery platform according to 51, wherein the at least two expressedself-assembled enzymes act synergistically.
 65. The anucleatedcell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to 51,wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes each work tocarry out a portion of an overall enzymatic reaction.